SLA RESEARCH ON SELF-DIRECTION: THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ISSUES

the three types of strategies. However, Wenden believes that self-management strategies can
be taught separately, something I do not agree with. She advises the reader: "Decide which
of the self-management strategies you will first train them to use" (1991,114). First, I do not
think that the teacher can decide on the order of metacognitive strategies because they are a
framework of three elements that interrelate in a very complex way. Second, the learner is
the one that needs to decide which strategy to use, according to her stage in the learning
task.

3.3.2.2 Metacognitive knowledge

Some writers define metacognitive strategies as knowledge, regulation or control
(Rubin; 1987,23 and O'Malley & Chamot; 1990,105). I prefer to separate out the 'knowledge'
element in order to be able to relate the concept to other researcher's schemes. If we talk
about metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive strategies it is clear then, that Holec and
O'Malley & Chamot are identifying the same needs, though the latter use more specialised
terms. The operationalization of knowledge of Holec (see p. 22), which is the process that
develops skills from acquired knowledge, is confirmed by O'Malley and Chamot who state
that "strategies began as declarative knowledge that become proceduralised with practice"
(1990,85).

John Flavell defines metacognitive knowledge as

that segment of your stored world knowledge that has to do with people as
cognitive creatures, and with their diverse cognitive tasks, goals, actions and
experiences (1979,906)

It is difficult, from this definition to decide what is and what is not metacognitive
knowledge. And the problem is not the definition itself but the very nature of the process we
are dealing with: learning. In fact, when one stops to think about it, everything can, in a
given moment, affect, either positively or negatively, the process of learning. That is the
reason why the definition of metacognitive knowledge needs to be so broad. In order to
make things more manageable, some researchers have distinguished different types of
metacognitive knowledge. Flavell (1979) divides it into three kinds: person, task and
strategy knowledge. The first refers to cognitive and affective beliefs that are related the
cognitive aspect of human beings. Within this category Flavell distinguishes three concepts:

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