is assumed to trigger pupils’ intrinsic motivation by changing the teaching approach from
teacher-led to pupil centred methods (Ministry of Education, 1999). It values pupils’
autonomy and self-determination in learning, and promotes learner participation. It is
believed that taking part in a diverse range of mathematical activities, including both
practical and mental activities, which are believed to stimulate all pupils’ strengths, will
provide pupils with enjoyment, and a sense of fulfilment, invention, surprise and
inspiration.
The Ministry proposes that the adoption of various organisational styles in mathematics
classes should also be encouraged for the sake of children’s moral and personal
development (Ministry of Education, 1999). Diversity of methods is assumed to be able
to provide children with opportunities to explore the “goodness of self’ and others
through sharing their views with others, self-reflection and peer evaluation. These
experiences are expected to promote children’s moral and personal development.
Adoption of various organisational styles in mathematics classes is also assumed to
make learning mathematics more meaningful by linking what they have learned in their
mathematics classes to everyday settings (Ministry of Education in Japan, 1999).
The Ministry also suggests that the adoption of a variety of organisational styles in
mathematics classes can satisfy individual differences (Ministry of Education in Japan,
1999). Some research has indicated that many teachers believe that suitable teaching
methods differ according to the individuals’ current attainments and motivation. Thus,
adopting a teacher-led, explanation-based teaching method with a whole class is
suitable for pupils who are poor at mathematics, and for unmotivated pupils, especially in
older grades. Similarly, teachers believed that giving the right answers and direct
teacher guidance through teacher-led, explanation-based teaching methods could
improve the knowledge of pupils who are not able to learn from their mistakes (Ishida et
al., 1986, Kajita et al, 1985). Teachers believed that classes proceeding at the same
pace as other peers, reading a textbook and learning from descriptions on the black
board, provided a sense of security to pupils who were not good at mathematics,
especially in the case of older children (Nakano, 1990). Teachers believed that the
elicitors of pupils’ motivation in mathematics learning differed according to pupils’
attainments. Imai (1995) reported that junior high school mathematics teachers believed
that intense relationships with the teacher promoted the motivation of middle level of