5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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et al., 1979). This is especially the case for mathematics classes in Japanese schools
where a class normally includes both high and low achievers (Uttal, et al. 1988).
Whitman (1990), using a questionnaire survey found that most 8^th grade teachers in
Tokyo believed that constructing effective whole-class sessions with warm, personal
relationships with students was important, although working with the individual student
was also valued. Stigler (1987) mentioned that whole-class discussion which provides
pupils with a sense of commitment and mutual support in class promoted pupils’ interest
in learning mathematics and enhanced academic performance. Thus, discussion is
perceived to promote pupils’ positive affective attitudes towards mathematics learning as
well as ∞gnitive development.

The possible disadvantage of adopting whole-class teaching in mathematics classes is
that this teaching method can lack consideration of individual needs. DeVito et al. (1989)
suggest that whole-class teaching can lead to the image of an average child, and the
teacher adjusting the individual child to that image. This may lead to teachers’ believing
that all children can learn mathematics up to a certain level, not taking account of
individual differences. The earlier research suggested that whole-class teaching method
was effective for time and resource management, promotion of pupils’ mathematical
thinking and promotion of their positive affective attitudes towards mathematics learning,
while it might lack care for individual differences.

Group learning

The UK inspectorate (DFE, 1992) reported that group seating, which enables small
group discussion in a group to take place, is used in some mathematics classes in
Japan. The individual pupil is allocated to an individual desk. Desks are moved from row
to group seating for collaborative work, and back to rows in the sessions requiring
individual cognitive activities. Such desk arrangements matched to the characteristics of
the task provided are beneficial for productivity of work and pupils’ concentration on
work, as Hastings et al. (1996) established in UK classrooms. Although group seating is
not the dominant style of class organisation in mathematics classes, learning from peers
is greatly encouraged from children’s early days in the Japanese educational system.
Children are reported to be well accustomed to learning in a group (Kotloff, 1998).
Tsuchida et al’s (1998) observation showed that Japanese teachers en∞uraged pupils

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