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Fifth grade teachers need to support their pupils in developing effort-based attributions
as some pupils attributed their failure in mathematics learning to lack of ability. This
could have negative effects on learners’ self-esteem and academic self-concept
(Weiner, 1974, 1986, 1992; Harnisch et al. 1983; Higuchi et al. 1986; Masuda, 1994, Ito,
1996). Skaalvik (1990) suggested that attributing poor performance to external causes
can be a self-serving system for young children. However, few Japanese children
attributed failure to external causes such as lack of support from the teacher or at home.
This being the case effort based attribution of failure is likely to promote motivation and
greater success more than attribution based on ability.
Teachers need to be cautious in assessing the extent of pupil effort through examining
pupils’ work. Teachers mentioned in the interviews that they valued the learning process
more than the learning outcomes. However, mastery learning, which implies that all
pupils can achieve certain levels, aims for equality of outcome (Foster et al, 1996).
Naturally, teachers assess the effectiveness of their teaching from their pupils’ learning
outcomes. This may put some children under enormous pressure. Too much emphasis
on effort may make some pupils dislike mathematics if they perceive that their learning is
a failure (Hosaka, 1989). Some children may require additional support to give them
confidence and progress, rather than final attainment, should be positively evaluated.
Formative feedback which supports pupils’ progress should be given, as the new Course
of Study (Ministry of Education, 1999) has suggested.
Fifth grade teachers need to praise their pupils more frequently in order to convey their
beliefs about the importance of the personal enhancement of effort. Pupils reported that
teachers hardly ever praised them, for any reason. In addition, 5th graders perceived that
their teachers praised them for making more effort than others as well as increasing their
own efforts. If effort is always praised in comparison with others some pupils may never
be praised. Some pupils expressed the view that they did not like being praised. Further
research might explore the reasons for this. The perceived differences between
teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of the giving of praise might be explained by
differences in verbal and non-verbal signals given by teachers.
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