future generations. In the subsequent discussion on sustainable development, the concept has been
divided into four dimensions: ecological, social, cultural and economic.
The ecological dimension means that development should promote the conservation and
preservation of the integrity and diversity of the ecological system and minimize the depletion of
non-renewable resources. Sustainable economic development is effective, as it utilizes as few
natural resources as possible and causes minimal pollution. Economic development also has to be
equal between citizens and nations and between the present and the future generations. The cultural
dimension means that development should be in harmony with the values and cultural concepts of
the individuals involved. The social dimension means that the aim of development is to improve the
quality of human life in such a way that development enables people to realize their potential, build
self-confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfilment. Communities must be empowered in order
to be able to care for their own environments. Development has to be more participatory. This
means that citizens must have enough opportunities to express their opinions in decision-making
related to their living conditions. This is possible if the administrative system is open and
democratic. This, in turn, implies that the government needs to be in continuous discussion with its
citizens and civic organizations. (Jacob 1996, 10-16; Rannikko 1999, 397-398.)
Citizens' empowerment requires an open and democratic administrative system. A system of this
kind gives people equal opportunities and access to expertise and knowledge and a capacity to
contribute to the decisions that affect them (see, for example, Arnstein 1969; Barber 1984, XVii;
226-227; Ponnikas 2000 or Rogers & Ryan 2001). The models of participation that have been
presented in the discussion on sustainable development could be divided into the top-down and
bottom-up models of participation. The top-down model is mainly concerned with the
implementation of sustainable development, but hardly at all with determining the implicit
objectives of such development. Governments decide about the objectives, using expert knowledge,
and the public is mainly involved to carry out the policy. Participation at the objective-setting stage
consists of only desultory consultation (Jacobs 1999, 34). This type of participation is functional,
which means that participation is seen by external agents as a means to achieve goals. The goals of
participation have already been decided. (Bell & Morse 2001, 297; Jacobs 1999, 34-35.) According
to Arnstein (1969, 216-217), these top-down forms of participation are mere empty rituals. Arnstein
speaks about the following forms of tokenism: informing, consultation and placation. Informing is
the first step towards legitimate participation. But quite often the emphasis is on informing citizens
of plans made elsewhere, with no channel for feedback. Consultation, similarly to public hearing, is
another legitimate step towards citizen power. But Arnstein argues that, although consultation