The name is absent

70        HEBREW LIFE AND CUSTOM

perhaps indicate that the mazmêrôth were not'bill-h∞ks,
but rather shears for pruning. It may be noted that the
word zâmêr,¹ often rendered ‘ the singing of birds more
probably means ‘ the priming sc. of the vines.

The peasant cultivators of the land in Palestine were for
the most part poor, and doubtless many possessed but one
ox or cow.² The Deuteronomic code—in strong contrast
to what may too often be seen in the East at the present
time—is remarkable ininculcating akindly Careforanimals,³
forbidding the muzzling of the ox when treading out the
corn ⁴ or the yoking together of animals of such unequal
strength as the ox and the ass.⁵ From the mention of a
muzzle⁶ it may be inferred that there was a use of the
muzzle which was regarded as legitimate, probably to
keep it from eating standing corn in the field of another.’

For riding-animals some sort of bit (méthtgh)* was in use.

There are some slight indications that some attempts to
manure the arable lands were made in both pre-exilic and
post-exilic times ; » and a dung-heap is mentioned.¹⁰ Every
seventh year the land was allowed to lie fallow, ɪɪ

After the ploughing, which took place in autumn and,
except in the case of the lazy, was mostly finished before

’ Cant. ii. 12.                           ¹ Cf. Isa. vii. 2i.

³ Cf. also Hos. xi. 4.                      ⁴ Deut. xxv. 4.

³ Deut. xxii. 10. Since this prohibition is immediately followed by
a law forbidding the weaving together of wool and linen, it may
perhaps be imagined that it is due not so much to humanitarian con-
siderations as to some ancient and perhaps forgotten taboo. The
Conjimction of the two laws, however, may be reasonably explained
by their general similarity, and the latter is enjoined for a reason
totally distinct from the former. We know from Ezek. xliv. ɪ 7 that
woollen garments were forbidden to the priests while ministering in
the inner court, and a similar prohibition may have been in force for
the laity when taking part in holy rites. It would therefore be
essential that there should be no risk of mistake.

⁶ Ps. xxxix. ɪ (2).                  ⁷ Exod. xxii. 5.

⁸ Prov. xxvi. 3 ; Isa. xxxvii. 29.

» 2 Kings ix. 37 ; Jer. viii. à, ix. 22, xvi. 4, xxv. 33.

» j_sa, χχv. ɪo.                        “ Exod. xxiii. ɪo ff.

MANURING, SEEDS, HARVEST         71

the beginning of winter,¹ the sowing naturally followed.
It would seem from the corrected text of Hag. ii. 19,
which if we may accept the date given in w. 10, 18, was
uttered on the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month—i.e.
apparently, mid-December—the seed was then not yet
sown, and agricultural operations were at a standstill.
The ordinary sowing-time therefore would appear to have
been not earlier than mid-December.

The seeds sown were wheat, which was naturally most
prized,² barley,³ lentils,⁴ millet,⁵ spelt,⁵ and beans.⁵ The
bread which Ezekiel baked, by way of illustrating what
might be expected in a siege, was made of mixed meal
and was evidently not unlike the composition which was
called by courtesy bread during the late War. Agriculture
was considered a somewhat hard life ;⁶ in fact, work in
general was regarded as a necessary evil.⁷

Barley harvest began as a rule before the end of April,⁸
and wheat harvest was usually finished about seven weeks
later.⁹ The com was reaped with a sickle, and afterwards
bound into sheaves.¹⁰ As in England before the invention
of reaping-machines, much corn was left on the ground,
which was eagerly sought by gleaners.¹ ɪ The harvesters
were also expected to leave on the stalk corn growing in
comers not easily cut with the sickle.¹ ɪ

Of domestic animals other than those used for ploughing
or for drawing loads the ordinary peasant possessed but
few. Indeed even his cows were, when possible, used for
ploughing.¹² The milch cows which drew the cart contain-
ing the Ark,¹³ being sacred, were offered as a whole burnt-
offering, but the oxen with which Elisha had ploughed
provided a meal,¹⁴ which, at that date, was of course at a
sanctuary.

^t Prov. xx. 4.         ’ Exod. xxix. 2.         ³ Isa. xxviii. 25.

⁴ Gen. xxv. 34 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 28.           ^s Ezek. iv. 9.

⁶ Gen. iii. 17f. ⁷ Prov. xvi. 26; Eccles, vi. 7. ⁸ Exod. xxiii. 15.

^, Deut. xvi. 9.      ” Gen. xxxvii. 7.      “ Lev. xix. 9, xxiii. 22.

“ Hos. x. ɪɪ.          ^³ ɪ Sam. vi. 14.         ɪ⁴ ɪ Kings xix. 21.

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