more relevant to specific needs, the burden of financing falling more on the shoulders of
the beneficiaries, and lower opportunity costs because the trainee usually works part-
time while studying.
One example of research in which vocational schooling was found to be more cost-
effective than general academic education comes from Israel (Neuman & Ziderman,
1989). However, there is still support for Psacharopoulos' conclusions since Neuman &
Ziderman also found vocational schooling to be less cost-effective than alternative non-
formal training modes, notably the traditional apprenticeship and factory-based
vocational schools.
More evidence on diversified secondary education is given by Psacharopoulos & Loxley
(1985), based on research in Colombia and Tanzania. They found a number of positive
results of diversification, including higher cognitive achievement and better labour
market performance of students following diversified curricula. However, curriculum
diversification is expensive and difficult to implement.
This study has failed to provide evidence that the measurable monetary
benefits of diversification are greater than those of conventional education.
They suggest that
the lower the overall level of a country's development, the weaker the case
for introducing a diversified curriculum. The more developed the country,
the more it may be able to afford diversification. (ibid)
Haddad et al (1990) also distinguish different needs in different countries. For most
countries they argue that, although there is economic justification for investment in
vocational education, such investment should be selective, and focus much more on in-
firm and firm-connected or industry-connected programs. However in the case of low-
income countries (with weak enterprises and stagnant demand for skills) a different
training strategy is required:
Pre-employment training is more important, since enterprises themselves
have little training capacity, and this training should be more generic,
focusing on general academic preparation.....and on self-employment and
entrepreneurship. (Haddad et al, 1990, p49)
Although this sounds logical, it may not be easy to develop the skills and
opportunities needed for self-employment to become a reality for large
numbers of school leavers.