considerable attention is needed for operational specification of the hypothesis according
to the needs of individual countries.
Much teacher effectiveness research appears to be inconclusive. In a more recent
example from Thailand, based on grade 5 mathematics, Nitsaisook & Postlethwaite
(1986) found that the larger context of the school in general is important as well as how
the students perceive the task orientation, feedback, and structuring of teachers.
The field of teaching effectiveness research has not yet arrived at a point
where it knows exactly what makes a teacher effective, and clearly further
research is necessary.....Those teachers that are task oriented and who
have been trained both to deal quickly with procedural and discipline
problems in the classroom and to apply certain questioning techniques in
large classes are successful. (p437)
It is to be noted that Lockheed & Verspoor (1991) regard lengthy preservice pedagogical
training as a 'blind alley' policy option. They argue for shortening teacher training
courses, and for emphasis on inservice training. The mainground for this
recommendation appears to be cost; they quote data from 27 low-income and lower-
middle-income countries on the annual cost of teacher training as a multiple of general
secondary education. The average ratio is 7.06, although the range is from 0.53 to a
staggering 34.67! Lockheed & Verspoor summarise their chapter on Improving the
Preparation and Motivation of Teachers as follows:
A key determinant of student achievement is the quality of teaching. An
effective teacher should possess at least a thorough knowledge of the
subject matter being taught, an appropriate repertoire of pedagogical
skills, and motivation. The teaching force in many countries fails to meet
these standards.....Governments must design policies and programs aimed
specifically at improving the academic and pedagogical preparation of
teachers and providing incentives to strengthen their motivation and
professional commitment. The challenge is particularly difficult for low
income countries, which must not only improve the quality of the current
teaching force but also expand its size if they are to achieve universal
primary education.
To address the problem of inadequate academic background, countries
will have to shift the general education component of teacher training to
secondary schools, shorten preservice teacher training, and improve the
process of recruiting students for teacher training institutions. Strategies
for developing good pedagogical skills should include revising the
admission requirements, emphasizing pedagogical methods, and