displacement from the labour market. Also, the course of economic development in the
past two decades has eroded the economic role of women. Technological innovation in
both the organised and unorganised sectors of the economy has not been sensitive to
women's roles and needs, and has instead tended to increase women's displacement
from the process of development. Mukhopadhyay's analysis shows that public policy
betrays an essentially middle-class bias which assumes women are primarily home-
workers. Programmes to "integrate women in the development process" ignore the
reality that most women already contribute a large amount to development but their
contribution is not recognised.
Mukhopadhyay's book is a small but nevertheless significant addition to the literature
on gender and development in India. The arguments of the book are sustained both by
statistical evidence and interviews with individual women. It details the causes of the
deteriorating status of the majority of Indian women, discusses the reasons behind this
and puts forward recommendations for the future. The major strength of the book is the
critique of certain so-called development practices that have, in fact, had a negative
impact on women. It emphasises that development programmes should be more
sensitive to the needs of women. This slim text discusses in a thought-provoking
manner the major issues relating to women's development in India. It also indicates the
policy changes that are requires to rid women of the shackles that have bound them for
so long.
GHOSH, Ratna and TALBANI, Abdulaziz (1996), India in: MAK, Grace C.L.
Women, Education and Development in Asia: Cross-National Perspectives,
Garland Publishing, New York and London, 165-186.
The position of women in India is complex because of regional, cultural, and religious
differences and sharp socioeconomic disparities. A very small number of women are
educated and visible in positions of power and prestige, while the vast majority, whose
basic concern is survival, are illiterate, powerless and vulnerable. Despite a fair degree
of freedom long ago in the Vedic age, it was not until the immediate post-independence
period of 1947 that any modem impetus was evident in support of opportunities for
women, whether economic or educational. Only about 8 per cent of females were
literate in 1947. The Constitution of 1950 began to recognise human rights, but neither
this nor the education system strikes at the structures of patriarchal subordination. It is
not so much an issue of educational opportunity here as one of keeping women in their
traditional social roles.
Despite the massive expansion of popular education since 1947, in 1990 the female
literacy rate had only reached about 25 per cent nationally and 18 per cent in rural
areas. This chapter goes on to detail the situation of gender and education in India
according to standard indeces: enrolment at different levels, wastage, distribution by
field of study etc. Very few women are in the workforce in official terms but a minority