believing that they had not been trained for the subject. Research on curriculum reforms
in Tanzania and Rwanda suggested that teachers were generally cooperative and that
the reactions of local communities were positive (Riedmiller 1989). An evaluation of
environmental and agricultural science in Zimbabwe (Lewin and Bajah 1991) also
found generally favourable attitudes amongst teachers and students to the subject.
Fieldwork suggested that the agricultural aspects of the course were amongst the most
popular parts which caused the least learning difficulties. Indeed since agriculture has
remained a feature of many African primary school curricula (all 30 countries covered
in Riedmiller and Mades' 1991 review) it suggests that it does have a perceived value.
A possible explanation is that this is the case at primary level, but at secondary, where
the competition to enter modern sector jobs starts in earnest, Foster's thesis still stands.
2.3.2 Approaches
At least four main approaches to technical and vocational education have been
identified (Lillis and Hogan 1983). These include:
Curriculum diversification at a system level which seeks to reorientate the whole
school curriculum towards occupational relevant sills.
Parallel systems where technical and vocational institutions exist alongside a general
schools system with a conventional academic orientation.
Core curriculum options that provide vocational and technical programmes within the
structure of general school curricula as a minor but substantial component.
Non-formal systems which provide opportunities for out of school youth to acquire
vocational and technical skills which may be used either to obtain formal sector
employment or promote the development of self employment and the development of
the informal sector of the labour market.
Of these the first was widely supported as a strategy throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
The research consensus is disappointing. Diversification is not thought to have resulted
in the achievement of many of the aims set for it in most countries. Moreover there has
been a swing away from such approaches (Middleton 1988: 223) since the late 1970s as
a result of increasing levels of disillusion with the impact of such reforms.
Technical and Vocational schools as separate entities are probably the most widespread
form of institutionalised provision of technical and vocational education. Commonly
they suffer from lower quality student intakes than normal academic schools, at least in
terms of the general levels of scholastic ability represented by school examinations.