Education and Development: The Issues and the Evidence

Second, far fewer days may actually be available for teaching than those which are
allocated. The actual number of normal teaching days in rural primary schools may be
anywhere between 10% and 30% less than the official number. The reasons commonly
include:
loss of teaching days at the beginning of the school year and school terms for
registration of new and returning students school refurbish-meet/cleaning etc.

a week or more for administering public examinations when normal teaching is
disrupted (often more in school with secondary grades)

special school events - sports days, school exhibitions, visits by dignitaries

extended public holidays

leave and teacher absenteeism.

Thus the World Bank has estimated that teacher classroom attendances are only 70% of
the level they would be if all teachers taught on all teaching days in Shri Lanka (World
Bank 1989b). In a recent study of schools in an Autonomous Prefecture in China more
than half the students in senior grades of primary school were found to be absent on
days when field workers visited schools (Lewin, Wang et al 1994). Clearly higher
teacher attendance coupled with full utilisation of teaching days would significantly
increase the hours of instruction available and might reduce the number of teachers
needed. It should also improve student achievement assuming there is some relationship
between this and the amount of teaching received. Community teachers in the
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee non formal primary education project have
very low absenteeism despite being in poor rural communities. The administrative
arrangements are such that unexplained absences result in loss of pay; when absence
occurs substitute community teachers are utilised (Lovell and Fatema 1989).

Seasonal absenteeism is common in rural areas during planting and harvest times. The
effects of this on learning achievement may be lessened if learning is planned in blocks
lasting a few weeks which are complete learning experiences in themselves. Where
student absenteeism is high, and reductions in it are unlikely in the short term,
curriculum planning which assumes that school experience is not necessarily
continuous might therefore bring benefits.

Third, the organisation of teaching and learning typically involves students remaining
in whole class groups during all teaching hours. The amount of time spent by students
working without direct supervision during school hours is usually small. Where it

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