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going. In the cases of Calomue and Tchabualo, smallholders seemingly returned to their
family lands with little difficulty. In other areas, such as Domue and M'Languene, there has
been great difficulty with reintegration; much of the problem has come from confusion over
land rights, most of which is due to overlapping and competitive claims. This process is being
complicated by the government as it grants concessions and fails to devise a determinate
tenure policy. The fact that government authorities simply told people to return to the land
they had abandoned exhibits extreme insensitivity toward smallholders and the historical
circumstances surrounding land access and tenure security.
Reports from other sources indicate that there are few land conflicts in the interior region
of the province or away from the major transportation/commercial Domue-Ulongue-
M'Languene-Tsangano axis. 301 Most conflicts are occurring where population density is
high and where the best (most strategic) land is located—in addition to the areas where land
concessions have been granted.
It appears that most conflicts between smallholders are being resolved by customary
authorities, though several of these farmers reported that locality officials had also been
involved. It is obvious, however, that further research is needed to understand the dynamics
between returning refugees, new arrivals, and other local smallholders. Internal struggles
within these communities may become manifest as the refugee population settles and more
land is exploited for agricultural production. This area should be monitored in the future.
There is some evidence that Mozambicans and Malawians are entering the district because
of its fertile and productive lands. Demobilized soldiers have also been negotiating for land
rights, and their demands may be accelerated by the demobilization process. These new
entrants may destabilize the district, particularly since the latter group is powerful and has
the backing of international donor agencies.
Although we cannot be certain, at the time of research it appeared that district authorities
had stopped granting land concessions. Whether this moratorium is for election purposes or
some other objective, the end result is positive. In addition, however, district authorities must
resolve problems pertaining to the concessions granted during the war. Part of the difficulty
stems from the fact that CAIA land has not been officially divested. In fact, the issue in
Angonia is representative of problems affecting the state farm sector elsewhere, for the
central government has yet to articulate a definite divestiture policy. At the same time, district
and provincial governments must find ways to promote commercial agricultural investment.
This will be impossible given the current confusion surrounding the status of the state farm
sector.
District authorities need to decide if they will support previously granted concessions or
extinguish these rights. As it stands now, the authorities have avoided making a firm decision,
thus contributing to tenure insecurity. It is not sufficient for them to say that they have not
301. Bonga and Wilson (1993); Wilson (1991b); and Nina Berg, Norwegian Refugee Council, personal
communication, November 1993.