Writing, working memory and dual-TASK
Fayol, 1997) illustrate well this point. These
authors used different secondary tasks according to
the predictions they tested but also according to the
age of writers. For instance, in order adults create
spelling errors that they usually do not make,
Fayol et al. used large concurrent memory loads.
By contrast, in order to show that the processes
underlying subject-verb agreement gradually
automatize with development, children of different
ages were submitted to a probe task.
Finally, although this article has exclusively
brought data stemming from dual-task experiments,
other techniques are available for studying the on-
line management of writing. For example, analysis
of verbal fluency (or dysfluency) also contributed to
the understanding of writers' management
strategies. Frequency or duration of pauses, and
variations of fluency are indeed reliable indicators
of strategic changes of management of processes
(Fayol, 1999). Furthermore, analyses of ocular
movements of writers should bring crucial
information on the time course of cognitive
processes engaged in text composition.
REFERENCES
Alamargot, D. & Chanquoy, L. (2001). Though the
models of writing. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
Andrade, J. (Ed.) (2001). Working memory in
perspective. Hove: Psychology Press.
Atkinson, R. C. & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human
memory. In K. W. Spence (Ed.), The psychology of
learning and motivation: Advances in research
and theory (pp. 89-195). New York: Academic
Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1996). Exploring the central
executive. The quarterly Journal of Experimental
psychology, 49A (1), 5-28.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new
component of working memory? Trends in
Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423.
Baddeley A. D. (2001). Is working memory still
working? American Psychologist, 56, 849-864.
Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory.
In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning
and motivation (pp. 47-90). New York: Academic
Press.
Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. (2001). Working memory
in perspective: Foreword. In J. Andrade (Ed.),
Working memory in perspective (pp. xv-xix). Hove:
Psychology Press.
Berninger, V. W. & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying
Hayes and Flower’s model of skilled writing to
explain beginning and developing writing. In E. C.
Butterfield (vol. Ed.), Advances in cognition and
educational practice, Vol. 2. Children's writing:
Toward a process theory of the development of
skilled writing (pp. 57-81). Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.
Bock, J. K. & Levelt, W. (1994). Language production:
Grammatical encoding. In M. A. Gernsbacher (Ed.)
Handbook of Psycholinguistics (pp. 945-984). San
Diego: Academic Press.
Brown, T. L. & Carr, T. H. (1989). Automaticity in skill
acquisition: mecanisms for reducing interference
in concurrent performance. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception &
Performance, 14, 45-59.
Caplan, D. & Waters, G. S. (1999). Verbal working
memory and sentence comprehension. Behavioral
& Brain Sciences, 22, 77-126.
Cocchini, G., Logie, R. H., Della Sara, S., MacPherson,
S. e., & Baddeley, A. D. (2002). Concurrent
performance of two memory tasks: evidence for
domain specific working memory systems. Memory
& Cognition, 30, 1086-1095.
Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term
memory: a reconsideration of mental storage.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24 (1), 87-185.
Fayol, M. (1997). Des idees au texte. Psychologie
cognitive de la production verbale, orale et ecrite.
Paris : PUF.
Fayol, M. (1999). From on-line management problems
to strategies in written production. In M. Torrance
& G. Jeffery (Eds), Cognitive demands of writing.
Processing capacity and working memory effects
in text production (pp. 13-24). Amsterdam:
Amsterdam University Press.
Fisk, A. D., Derrick, W. L. & Schneider, W. (1986-87). A
methodological assessment and evaluation of
dual-task paradigms. Current Psychological
Research & Reviews, 5, 315-327.
Gathercole, S. E. & Baddeley, A. (1993). Working
memory and language. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Hayes, J. R. & Gradwohl Nash, J. (1996). On the nature
of planning in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. E.
Ransdell (Eds.). The science of writing: Theories,
methods, individual differences and applications
(pp. 29-55). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Howe, M. L. & Rabinowitz, F. M. (1989). On the
uninterpretability of Dual-task performance.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47, 32-
38.
Humphrey, D. G., & Kramer, A. F. (1994). Toward a
psychophysiological assessment of dynamic
changes in mental workload. Human Factors, 36, 3-
26.
Jarrold, C., Baddeley, A. D., & Hewes, A. K. (1999).
Genetically dissociated components of working
memory: evidence from Down's and Williams
syndrome. Neuropsychologia, 37, 637-651.
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory
of comprehension: Individual differences in
working memory. Psychological Review, 99, 122-
149.
Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kellogg, R. T. (1987). Effects of topic knowledge on
the allocation of processing time and cognitive
effort to writing processes. Memory & Cognition,
15, 256-266.
Kellogg, R. T. (1988). Attentional overload and
writing performance: Effects of rough draft and
outline strategies. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 14,
355-365.
Kellogg, R. T. (1993). Observations on the
psychology and thinking of writing. Composition
studies, 21, 3-41.
Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in
writing. In C. M. Levy & S. E. Ransdell (Eds), The