of cognitive transformation is profound enough (e.g. leading up to a “metasystem
transition” [Turchin, 1977]), it may trigger the higher level of consciousness or
understanding that is commonly called “enlightenment”.
From Myth to Modern Narrative
What distinguishes the heroic adventures of a mythical individual from the down-to-
earth processes of regulation, exploitation and exploration that every living being has
to perform is essentially simplification, exaggeration and dramatization. That is
exactly what you would expect from a story that has been told and retold thousands of
times. Both the storyteller and the listener have cognitive limitations that make that
they will not be able to assimilate or remember the often-subtle details of a complex
series of events involving many interacting agents. Therefore, such subtleties will
disappear from the story after a few rounds of retelling, as illustrated by the
experiments of Lyons and Kashima [2003]. This is likely to leave merely a
straightforward plot revolving around a single protagonist. The subtle interaction
between known, predictable events and unknown, mysterious influences will tend to
be reduced to the simple dichotomy: ordinary world vs. magical realm.
Moreover, a good storyteller tends to aggrandize those aspects that are most
dramatic, in the sense that they create intense feelings in the listener. Even when the
narrator does not intentionally dramatize the story, it are the most emotionally loaded
episodes and story variants that are most likely to be remembered and passed on by
the listeners—as confirmed by an empirical investigation of urban legends [Heath &
Sternberg, 2001] Thus, the hero will not just run fast, but faster than the wind; not just
be strong, but strong enough to lift an ox; not just be pretty, but the most beautiful in
the realm. The beast to be confronted will not just be a wild bore with a smelly breath,
but a fire-breathing dragon. The aim of the quest will not just be some precious metal,
but a Holy Grail with magical powers.
Given this understanding of the ancient stories we find in the oral tradition of
myths and fairy tales, it becomes clear how narrative has evolved into its modern
forms. When stories are transmitted via writing, like in novels, there is much less need
for simplification, since the paper or electronic medium takes on the role of an
external memory [Clark & Chalmers, 1998; Heylighen & Vidal, 2008] that
dependably registers all the details about protagonists, settings, and interactions.
Moreover, with an increasingly educated, well-read and sophisticated audience, there
is less need to exaggerate or to reduce subtleties to black-and-white dichotomies, and
more impetus for an author to distinguish oneself and stimulate curiosity by deviating
from well-known formulas.
Therefore, narrative in modern literature tends to be much more complex,
involving a greater variety of agents, actions and interactions, and following an often
convoluted flow of time, including flashbacks, flashforwards, and different storylines
going on in parallel until they come together in the closing stages. The difference
between positive (goals, opportunities, affordances) and negative (dangers,
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