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RlCE UNIVERSITY STUDIES
(ming-chia) contributed to the development of epistemology and ontology,
but left little long-term philosophical legacy in China.
Ironically, it was the school of thought known as Legalism, which can
barely be called a philosophy, that exerted the most immediate and
profound influence on Chinese society. Legalism was little more than an
administrative approach emphasizing government by punitive law rather
than morality (contrary to the Confucian ideal), and state power as an end
in itself. But guided by these basic principles and blessed with capable
leadership, the Ch’in state—one of several major contenders for political
supremacy during the late Chou period—embarked on a systematic cam-
paign of conquest that resulted in the fall of the Chou ruling house in 256
B.C. and culminated in the subordination of all China by 221 B.C∙6
The Ch’in dynasty lasted only fifteen years, but it left an imprint on
Chinese culture for the next two millennia. Its sovereign, King Cheng, who
adopted the title of emperor (huang-ti) for the first time in Chinese history,
brought unprecedented cultural unity to China. Dismantling the vestiges of
Chou feudalism, he instituted a nationwide system of freehold farming and
imposed centralized, bureaucratic rule over the entire realm. At the same
time, he standardized weights, measures, coinage, axle lengths, and even the
Chinese script. Less laudably, the first Ch’in emperor imposed rigid
thought control on Chinese intellectuals and tried to suppress all non-
utilitarian works. This policy, commonly known as the “Burning of the
Books and the Burying of the Scholars” (fen-shu k’eng-ju), although not
entirely successful, resulted in the destruction of great amounts of priceless
literature, and created countless later controversies over the authenticity of
reconstituted texts.’
The harsh policies and rapid changes introduced by the first Ch’in
emperor, which may have helped stifle emerging capitalism in China,’ led to
widespread disaffection and rebellion. Within four years of the first em-
peror’s death, the Ch’in dynasty was overthrown.
The Han dynasty that followed (206 B.C.-A.D. 222) was one of the most
glorious periods in all of Chinese history. Indeed, later generations of
Chinese proudly called themselves “The People of Han” (Han-jen). The
key to Han administrative success was the creation of an effective blend or
balance of diverse cultural elements—a government that was Legalist in
structure but Confucian in spirit.’ This eclecticism was also evident in Han
Confucianism itself, which drew freely upon other ideas, including Taoism
and especially yin-yang∕t'five agents” cosmology.10 Han art and literature
reflected a similar balance of cultural influences—not only Confucian and
Taoist, but also courtly and popular, foreign and native.11 Further, the Han
period witnessed the incorporation of the so-called “Ten Wings” (shih-i)
into the l-ching and the elevation of the work to classic status. In fact, a