Private tutoring at transition points in the English education system: its nature, extent and purpose

increased parent’s anxieties about their children’s progress (Davies, 2004); concerns about the
quality of state education systems (Bray & Kwok, 1993; Foondum, 2002; Paviot, Heinsohn,
and Korkman, 2008); the extent of stratification and selection in the system (Bray & Kwok,
1993; Foondum, 2002; Mischo and Haag, 2002) and the extent to which additional lessons are
provided free of charge after school as used to be the case in former Soviet bloc countries
(Silova, Budiene and Bray, 2006; UNICEF, 1998). Demand for private tutoring may also be
affected by the provision of additional support during class time or after school (Ireson,
2004).

Cultural norms and values may also affect the employment of tutors, especially the value
placed on education, hard work and self-improvement, which are particularly evident in Asian
cultures influenced by the Confucian tradition (Heine, Lehman, Markus and Kitayama, 1999;
Salili, 1996; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992; Wing On, 1996). In contrast, Tweed and Lehman
(2002) propose that the USA and other ‘culturally Western’ groups have been influenced by
the Socratic tradition which emphasises the questioning of authority, a tendency to evaluate
and self-generated knowledge. England and the USA have also been influenced by a
Romantic tradition which sees each individual having ‘unique potentialities that emerge in a
gentle, nurturing environment’ (Eisenberger 1998, p.412).

Although paying for a private tutor is more affordable than private school fees, family
financial circumstances may preclude the option of employing a tutor. Tutors are more likely
to be employed by parents with higher average incomes and levels of education, who have the
resources required to pay tutors’ fees (Davies, 2004). This situation has the potential to

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