36
give answers to these questions. It is doubtful whether there are good economic reasons for conducting
cultural policy at the level of the European Commission. A large part of the budget is devoted to prestige
projects such as the Cultural Capital of Europe with little international spill-over effects and much of the
cultural exchange that is supported is hampered by costly bureaucratic procedures. Since not all countries
of Europe adhere to the arms’ length principle, it is difficult to avoid political intervention. Topics that
are of a European nature (e.g., competition policy, trade policy) are, typically, not the responsibility of
Ministers of Culture. The European Councils of the Ministers of Culture have very tiny agendas and
serve mainly the purpose of symbol politics.
8. International cultural policy: different approaches in Europe
Most countries of Europe make an effort to develop international cultural policy - e.g., Annalin (2003)
and the website www.culturalpolicies.net. Typically, this is the responsibility of both the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Culture (or Heritage for Hungary). In some cases the international
positioning of culture is done with the departments responsible for media and sport (UK), education
(Finland), sciences (Austria), sport and tourism (Ireland), or communication (France). In some countries
cooperation between the two key ministries has resulted in a central institute for international cultural
exchange (Denmark, the Netherlands) and in others these ministries work together on a continuing basis
(France, Finland). In others the Ministry of Foreign Affairs takes the lead (Austria, UK, and Sweden) and
may make use of cultural institutes abroad (such as the British Council and the French, Swedish or
Finnish Institutes). Sometimes the Ministry of Culture is primarily responsible (Hungary) and elsewhere
there discussions are going in that direction (Ireland, Sweden). In some cases international cultural policy
is shaped in collaboration with the regions (UK). Most countries engage in bilateral and multilateral
cultural treaties (in particular France with its many cultural specialists and Alliances Françaises) and join
forces regionally (e.g., the Nordic Council, Finland with the Baltic countries). They also develop
international cultural policy together with the Council of Europe, the EU and UNESCO.
Different definitions of international cultural policy formulation are used. Most countries use a
very broad concept of culture (Denmark, Finland, France, Austria, UK and Sweden). Some of these
countries tie international cultural policy closely with development policy (Sweden, Denmark, and
Finland) or with efforts to stabilise regions such as the Balkan (France, Austria, UK). International
cultural policy often pays considerable attention to education (Finland, France and UK) and boosting
creative industries (Denmark, Finland, Sweden, UK and France). Other countries employ a narrower
concept focusing at the arts, heritage and libraries (Ireland, Hungary).
In all countries one of the goals of international cultural policy is to help home cultural
organisations to travel abroad. With a certain degree of national pride countries want to promote their