within the villages. Migration decreases the total availability
of labor for farming and increases the number of farmers
without spouses. Despite its negative ramifications,
migration is encouraged by the older generations who do
not want their sons and daughters to farm. This article is
useful for its analysis of the changing relationships in maize
production between men and women and for its analysis of
how shifting household structures impact maize production.
Hirschmann, D., and M. Vaughan. 1983. Food production
and income generation in a matrilineal society: Rural
women in Zomba, Malawi. Journal of Southern African
Studies 10(1): 86-99.
Women are heavily involved in agriculture in the Zomba
District of Malawi and have a strong history of access to
land. With increasing land shortages, women are feeling
pressures and becoming more dependent on wages,
especially male wages. The majority of women interviewed
for this study do not have enough land for economic
independence or to produce the maize needed for their
households. Household structure is changing as the numbers
of female-headed households increase. This paper examines
the patterns of food production and income generation
among women in the context of their households.
Hirschmann, D., and M. Vaughan. 1984. Women Farmers
of Malawi: Food Production in the Zomba District.
Berkeley, California: University of California.
This report offers valuable information on women farmers
in Malawi. The data were provided by a microstudy of
women in the Zomba district where maize is the staple crop.
The findings of the survey clarify the role of women in
agriculture. An estimate of the number of households
effectively headed by women is given. Both the sexual
division of labor in different types of households located in
different geographical zones, and the sexual decision-making
responsibilities concerning agricultural production, the sale
of products, and household expenditures are described.
Women farmer’s assessments of extension officers, credit
policies, and the problems specific to women are provided.
The data on decision-making and division of labor were
gathered by survey response, not by observation. The
insights they provide into women’s expressed attitudes about
farming could be useful in understanding the production of
maize and other crops.
Holmboe-Ottesen, G., and M. Wandel. 1991. Men’s
contribution to the food and nutritional situation in the
Tanzanian household. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 26:
83-96.
As more emphasis is being placed on women’s contribution
to agriculture in Africa, this paper examines the roles of men
and the interactions of men’s and women’s activities in
agricultural production. They find no effect of men’s labor
in agriculture on children’s nutrition levels. They note that
the policy challenge is to increase men’s contribution to food
production without decreasing women’s roles and women’s
decision-making and control.
Honfoga, B. 1993. Maize acreage response under differential
prices in the Republic of Benin, West Africa. Agricultural
Economics 9: 215-39.
This paper estimates the responses of maize acreage to both
urban and rural prices in Benin. Urban prices are statistically
related to maize acreage, whereas rural prices are not. There
is no distinction as to which farmers are responding to these
changing prices and how the prices affect the well-being of
different groups of farmers.
Howard, J.A. 1994. Improved maize in Zambia: A qualified
success story. Paper presented at the American
Agricultural Economics Association Meeting, August 7-
10, 1994, San Diego, California.
Maize is Zambia’s most important crop. This paper outlines
the history of maize varietal development, adoption, and
maize-related policies and examines their effects. The impact
of investments is stressed; it is hypothesized that the
adoption of new technology is closely linked to investments
in the seed industry, extension, and marketing and favorable
price policies. Evidence from a recent field survey is used to
examine production changes and to calculate the average rate
of return to research and complementary inputs. The
findings indicate that government policy has skewed
incentives towards maize production. The major impact of
policies such as pan-seasonal pricing, investments in
marketing facilities, provision of subsidized credit, and input
packages is to facilitate the production of maize by rural
farmers in remote areas and to diminish large-scale farmer
production nearer to consumption centers. Producer surplus
was shifted from large-scale farmers to small- and medium-
scale farmers. Urban consumers also benefited. It is noted
that if policy recommendations are made assuming a rate of
return calculated in isolation from the costs of
complementary organization, critical issues may be missed or
misinterpreted. Gender is not mentioned in this paper, but
the paper does demonstrate the ability of policy to transfer
producer surplus to traditionally disadvantaged groups.
Howard, J.A., and C. Mungoma. 1996. Zambia’s Stop-and-
Go Revolution: The Impact of Policies and Organizations
of the Development and Spread of Maize Technology. East
Lansing, Michigan: Dept. of Agricultural Economics,
Michigan State University.
This paper explores how Zambia’s policy environment
influenced the adoption and dissemination of maize
technology from 1964 to 1992. After independence, Zambia
improved the infrastructure of its state marketing system,
subsidized fertilizer, maintained pan-seasonal pricing,
subsidized maize meal to urban consumers, and encouraged
input adoption by offering credit packages to smallholders
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