Randolph, S. 1988. Constraints to agricultural production
in Africa: A survey of female farmers in the Ruhengeri
Prefecture of Rwanda. Studies in Comparative
International Development 23: 78-98.
This paper examines the causes of the intensification of
agriculture. Traditionally, it has been thought that when
population pressures increase, peasant farms restructure
themselves and adapt by reducing population growth,
intensifying use of existing land and/or expanding the
resource base. In contrast, this paper argues that such
restructuring or adaptation may not occur without successful
policy initiatives. A 1986 farming system survey of women
farmers in Rwanda is the basis for describing the
organization and method of operation of agricultural
household, with particular attention paid to production
constraints and demographic information. This information
is used to demonstrate the importance of women farmers to
agriculture and to argue for policies that consider women’s
needs when addressing agricultural issues. This paper
presents the first data gathered on rural farm women in
Rwanda and is most interesting for its implications on
adaptation to population growth and demographic
pressures. The staples of the region include beans, sorghum,
sweet potatoes, manioc, peas, and, to a lesser extent, maize.
If the pressures associated with population pressure reduce,
rather than enhance, farmers’ ability to intensify, then the
adoption of hybrid varieties of maize or other purchased
inputs is likely to be hindered.
Reardon, T. 1997. Using evidence of household income
diversification to inform study of the rural nonfarm
labor market in Africa. World Development 25(5): 735-
47.
Reviewing 23 field studies in Africa, the author finds that
non-farm wage labor, non-farm sector earnings, and local
non-farm earnings are important sources of income for rural
households. Self-employment, farm sector wage earnings,
and migration earnings were less important. However, the
distribution of these earnings is quite inequitable, suggesting
that there are barriers to entry and market segmentation.
The author notes a need for more work on how policy and
agricultural technology changes affect the rural nonfarm
sector, if we are to understand rural poverty and develop
appropriate responses.
Roberts, P. 1988. Rural women’s access to labor in West
Africa. In S. Stichter and J. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and
Class: African Women in the Home and Workplace.
The biggest constraint to agricultural production in Africa is
the shortage of labor. Since women farmers are even more
disadvantaged than their male counterparts in recruiting
labor, they have devised somewhat different approaches to
farming. The author explores the circumstances under which
women recruit labor and who they recruit. The established
view has been that women either work for others or work
single-handedly for themselves. However, there is evidence
that these characteristics of women’s farming may result
from women’s low access to labor, not from the constraints
of child-bearing and child care duties. Women’s lack of
social power in the household hierarchy makes it difficult
for them to demand labor from others as men are able to
do. Furthermore, women experience different pressures and
constraints than men: they are obligated to contribute
financially to the household. But since a woman must also
contribute labor on her husband’s land, with no reciprocal
claim on her husband’s labor, this limits the labor that she
has available for generating an income through own-
account enterprises. The author hypothesizes that in the
past, women’s enterprises were larger because slave labor was
available. When this was abolished, women’s freedoms were
constrained because they either became the main labor
source in the male farming systems or the sole producers in
female systems.
Rohrbach, D.D. 1989. The Economics of Smallholder
Maize Production in Zimbabwe: Implications for Food
Security. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State
University.
This report examines the rapid growth of maize production
in Zimbabwe between 1977 and 1985. The most important
causes of this growth were the ending of the war for
independence, the expansion of product markets,
smallholder credit and input markets, strong research and
extension support, and the maintenance of favorable
producer prices. Although increased maize production
benefited smallholder farmers in rural areas, these gains
were not evenly distributed. A comparison of maize
production, input adoption, and food security in the
communal areas of Mangwende and Chivi reveal that better
endowed farmers in high-rainfall zones benefited most from
post-independence policies. Despite the aggregate growth in
maize production and national food security, large portions
of the smallholder population still face consumption and
production deficits. This paper does not mention gender or
how the increase in maize production has influenced
women particularly.
Rukuni, M., and C.K. Eicher (eds.). 1994. Zimbabwe’s
Agricultural Revolution. Harare, Zimbabwe: University
of Zimbabwe Press.
Zimbabwe has been relatively successful in promoting
increased agricultural production, especially among
smallholder farmers. This book explores the many aspects of
Zimbabwe’s agricultural revolution. Chapters by different
authors discuss the relevant factors, including infrastructure
and institutions. In addition, the welfare impacts and the
reasons for ongoing food insecurity among some
Zimbabweans is analyzed. (Also see annotation for chapter
on gender issues by Muchena.)
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