Mara Yerkes & Jelle Visser
WOMEN’S PART-TIME PREFERENCES
The development of part-time work in both East and West Germany cannot be attributed to a
dominant preference among women. The male breadwinner model was a dominant factor in
Germany during the development of high levels of part-time work among women; West Germany
was a ‘strong’ breadwinner state (Lewis, 1992). The ‘strong’ male breadwinner model places an
emphasis on the private responsibility of families for childcare and makes the employment of a
second earner disadvantageous. In Germany, while the male breadwinner state actually created
facilities and services for women with children, these policies served to push women out of the
labour market. Opening times of schools and kindergartens, and poor availability of childcare also
discouraged the active participation of mothers, especially with young children (Killmann and Klein,
1997; Pfau-Effinger, 1998). Furthermore, the spouse-based splitting joint tax system provided one of
the highest levels of sole earner relief, thereby supporting the male breadwinner model (Dingleday,
2001). In West Germany, part-time work provided an inroad into the labour market for many
women, and in East Germany, part-time work is often involuntary as full-time work is the norm.
Due to these limited options, as well as social norms regarding childcare, part-time work developed
as a coping solution for many women looking to combine work and family life, rather similar to the
Netherlands. However, this only holds true for West Germany. Part-time work has been forced
onto many East German women after reunification, given fewer jobs and difficulties in maintaining
their position in the labour market.
Remnants of this male breadwinner model still exist in Germany, allowing part-time work to remain
an especially attractive option for mothers looking to combine paid and unpaid work. Although it is
slowly disappearing, the male breadwinner model still predominates policies as well as social and
cultural norms. As Pfau-Effinger argues, the male breadwinner model in Germany is being updated
or as she calls it ‘modernized’ (1998). This is particularly true in West Germany, whereas in East
Germany, part-time work is considered to be less prestigious with lower incomes, resulting in fewer
preferences for this form of working time (Garhammer, 2000). We see the effects of this
development reflected in German women’s working preferences today. Part-time work is now
preferred by many West German mothers looking to combine work and family life, although many
mothers of young children prefer to remain outside the labour market until their child is older
(Garhammer, 2000; Killmann and Klein, 1997). This cannot be said of East German women, who
continue to prefer full-time work.
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