Proximal family processes
competent and less likely to exhibit behaviour problems than children without such
positive parental interactions (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
A large number of studies have found correlations between the warmth of parent-child
interactions and later cognitive outcomes (e.g. Barocas et al., 1991; Diaz et al., 1991;
McGroder, 2000). Such correlations tend not to be value-added and so, as discussed
above, do not indicate causality so much perhaps as construct validity. In that sense,
however, they are useful.
One longitudinal study that estimated value-added effects of parenting quality
assessed in terms of warmth is that of Estrada et al. (1987). The authors found that the
affective quality of the mother-child relationship when the child was four years of age
was significantly correlated with mental ability at age four, school readiness at ages
five to six, IQ at six and school achievement at twelve. These associations remained
significant when the contributions of maternal IQ, socio-economic status and
children’s mental ability at age four were taken into account, suggesting that maternal
IQ and SES do not explain the association between the affective relationship and
children’s cognitive functioning.
The authors suggest that affective relationships may influence cognitive growth by
influencing:
i. parents’ tendency to engage and support children in solving problems;
ii. children’s social competence and consequently the flow of information
between children and adults;
iii. children’s exploratory tendencies, hence their willingness to approach and
persist in tasks.
Patterson et al. (1989) provide evidence suggesting that maternal warmth also matters
for later child behavioural competence. Children whose interactions with their
mothers were low in warmth were rated by teachers as having more behavioural
problems and as less competent in certain respects than did other children. Children
characterised by low maternal warmth also gave self-reports of their own social
acceptance and cognitive competence that were discrepant from objective information
than their peers. The authors argue that these results are consistent with the idea that
high maternal warmth serves as a protective factor against later adjustment
difficulties. It is also possible, however, that lower maternal warmth may be a
response to earlier behavioural difficulties. This endogeneity would be natural to
psychologists interested in interactive relationships but is problematic when one
wishes to identify econometric-style causality.
Socialisation practices
Many theories of the aetiologies of conduct problems and depression among children
suggest that inconsistent, erratic and harsh parenting practices characterise a coercive
cycle of conflict and parent-child interactions that lead to increased problem
behaviour and depressive symptoms (e.g. Patterson, 1986; Patterson et al., 1989).
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