The name is absent

Characteristics of the family

agency and perceptions of efficacy in determining achievement. Bandura proposes
that individuals’ efficacy expectations are the major determinant of goal setting,
activity choice, willingness to expend effort and persistence. Perceived self-efficacy is
determined by previous performance, vicarious learning, verbal encouragement by
others and one’s own psychological reactions. ‘Self-worth theory’ (Covington, 1992)
defines the motive for self-worth as the desire to establish and maintain a positive
self-image.

‘Modern expectancy-value theory’ (Eccles (Parsons) et al., 1983; Eccles, 1993;
Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992) assumes that expectancies and values
directly influence performance, persistence and activity choice. Expectancies and
values are also influenced by beliefs such as perceptions of competence, perceptions
of the difficulty of different tasks and individual goals. These are, in turn, influenced
by individuals’ perceptions of other peoples’ attitudes and expectations for them and
by their own interpretations of previous success or failure.

4.2.2 The effects of parental cognitions on children

These parental and familial beliefs and expectations are conveyed to children in many
subtle and more overt ways; encouraging particular activities and discouraging others,
telling children what they are good at and making comments about the value of talent
versus ability. For example, there is a well established association between parents’
expectations for their children’s educational attainment (e.g. whether or not their child
will attend college) and the child’s current and later achievement (e.g. (Alexander &
Entwisle, 1988; Schneider & Coleman, 1993; Seginer, 1983)). In general, research
here has indicated that more positive perceptions on the part of parents are associated
with higher attainment in children, both in terms of a parents’ perception of their own
child’s ability and in terms of accelerated normative expectations (Hiebert & Adams,
1987; Miller & Davis, 1992). Note however, that problems of causality are inherent
here. The reciprocal relations and feedback loops between child outcomes and
parents’ beliefs, valuations and expectations are highly complicated and constantly
shifting and so to say that one causes the other is beyond the scope of most research
designs.

Maternal beliefs about childrearing influence parental behaviour more generally and
hence the experiences of the child. Maternal knowledge of the developmental abilities
of infants, for example, is associated with the mother’s structuring of a stimulating
physical and learning environment (Luster & Dubow, 1990; Stevens, 1984). In turn,
exposure to different activities and experiences also provides children with the
opportunity to develop different competencies. Having specific success experiences
and acquiring specific skills are likely to influence motivation to engage in related
activities through their influence on personal efficacy, self-concept and performance
evaluation.

Desforges’ (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003) recent review of the impact of parental
involvement and support on children’s achievement and adjustment argues that
parents’ educational attitudes, aspirations and values are the most significant elements

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