The name is absent

Characteristics of the family

It is noteworthy that there is still an effect when taking into account actual attainment.
However, the role of causality in this association is still unclear. Clearly, parent and
child perceptions are reciprocally related, as noted in above 4.2. Mothers’ perceptions
of their children’s ability appear to influence change over time in the children’s self-
perceptions more strongly than vice versa (Eccles et al., 1991). However, this
evidence may be caused by greater accuracy in mothers’ perceptions than in
children’s perceptions so that over time, children learn and the perceptions of mothers
and children converge.

In a small sample of disadvantaged African American families Halle et al (1997)
showed that the relationship between parents’ expectations and children’s later
achievement remained significant even when children’s beliefs were controlled for.
This suggests that parents’ expectations are either important determinants of
attainment or that parents are particularly well able to assess ability that is not picked
up by children themselves.

As with other research the dominant error was of over-estimation of achievement. The
authors go on to suggest that optimistic self and parent appraisals of achievement may
serve as a protective factor for these children at risk (Garmezy, 1991). Wagner and
Phillips (e.g. 1992) argue that children who underestimate their academic abilities
may be at risk for underachievement and low motivation. As a result of their findings
however, Halle et al. suggest that children from disadvantaged backgrounds may be
more likely to show higher motivation and greater persistence towards academic
achievement if they are able to see themselves as capable and successful in school,
regardless of the accuracy of their assessments. Thus, the positive attitudes of these
students and their parents may aid, rather than hinder, their achievement.

4.2.4 The effects of prior parental education on parents’ cognitions

A recent paper by Davis-Kean & Schnabel (2001) used data from the 1997 US Child
Development Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID-CDS) to
examine the link between parental education and measures of parental expectations
for children’s achievement. Parents’ education was measured in terms of number of
years of education of both mother and father. Mean for the sample was approximately
thirteen years, slightly more than a high school education. Parents’ expectation was
measured with a continuous variable that asked the parent; ‘How much schooling do
you expect that your child will complete?’ Choices ranged from eleventh grade or less
(education = 1) to M.D., PhD, or other doctoral degree (education = 8). The mean for
the sample was 5.4 indicating that, on average, the parents in this sample expected
their children to graduate from college after two years.

Correlational analyses of these results showed that having a higher parental education
was significantly related to parents having higher expectations of child achievement
(r=.41). Subsequent structural equation analyses also showed parent education level as
having the strongest impact on parental expectations of the family demographic
variables assessed (income, employment status and ethnicity). The authors claim that
parental education impacts directly on parental expectations of their children’s

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