Characteristics of the family
thinking for oneself as the most important quality children can learn compared to just
35% of those with less than a high school education 6. Conversely, 34% of mothers
with lower educational achievement report obedience as the most important quality
for their children to learn compared with only 8% of mothers with a college degree.
In terms of maternal knowledge more generally, Brooks-Gunn et al. (1995) showed a
positive association between higher maternal education (i.e. having more than a high
school education) and mothers’ greater knowledge of child rearing and general child
development theory. This relationship held even when controlling for poverty. Note
that maternal knowledge may impact on parental cognitions but can also be
considered as one aspect of proximal family processes.
4.2.5 Issues of causality
Many of the points about causality made above in section 2.1.2 in relation to the
evidence for the effects of proximal process apply equally to the evidence about
beliefs and aspirations. It is difficult to disentangle pure causal elements in the
complex interactions between attainment and the beliefs and aspirations of parents
and children. Clearly, aspirations are likely to rise in response to success but, equally,
positive aspirations may drive success. Identifying pure causal effects is difficult and
requires a methodological focus that differs somewhat from that of the dominant
authors in the field.
4.2.6 Summary
Overall, the correlational evidence for the effects of education on parents’ cognitions
is strong but there is not yet enough evidence to suggest that the relationship is causal.
However, the theoretical grounds for such a link are strong. Similarly, the association
between parents’ cognitions and children’s outcomes is strong both theoretically and
empirically but causality has yet to be established.
From a developmental standpoint, cognitions are a key mediator of education effects.
They are important in themselves and as a channel for inter-generational transmission
of learning and achievement. There is correlational evidence to support this but the
causal effects are thus far relatively unsubstantiated.
4.3. Parental well-being and mental health
4.3.1 The effects of parental well-being and mental health on child
development
Parental mental health is a key influence on parents’ interaction with infants. Both the
inability to control the source of stress and the inability to cope or handle the stress
itself contribute to the deleterious effect on psychological functioning (Makosky,
1982). Psychological distress, depressive symptoms and parent irritability, in turn,
6 Parents were asked to report which of the five qualities they thought was the most important quality
for their child (under age 13) to learn: obedience; popularity; independence; hard worker; helper.
57
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