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Table of contents

Contents

Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2

1.1.   Overview.............................................................................................................. 2

1.2.   The attainment gap............................................................................................... 2

1.3.   Distal and proximal factors.................................................................................. 5

1.4.   A conceptual model of the inter-generational transmission of learning.............. 8

1.5.   Caveats, limitations and alternative perspectives .............................................. 11

2.   Proximal family processes ........................................................................................ 21

2.1.   Introduction........................................................................................................ 21

2.2.   Parenting style.................................................................................................... 24

2.3.   Educational behaviours...................................................................................... 29

3. The importance of context ........................................................................................ 36

3.1.   The meaning of context ..................................................................................... 36

3.2.  Neighbourhoods................................................................................................. 40

3.3.   Schools............................................................................................................... 43

3.4.   Pre-schools......................................................................................................... 46

4.   Characteristics of the family ..................................................................................... 50

4.1.   Introduction........................................................................................................ 50

4.2.   Parental cognitions............................................................................................. 51

4.3.   Parental well-being and mental health............................................................... 57

5.   Distal family factors.................................................................................................. 62

5.1.   Introduction........................................................................................................ 62

5.2.   Family structure ................................................................................................. 63

5.3.   Family size......................................................................................................... 65

5.4.  Teenage motherhood.......................................................................................... 67

5.5.  Income and poverty............................................................................................ 69

5.6.  Maternal employment........................................................................................ 71

6.  More complex modelling.......................................................................................... 74

6.1.   Introduction........................................................................................................ 74

6.2.   The model of mediating process for the effects of income................................ 74

6.3. The mechanisms mediating the effects of poverty on children’s intellectual
development....................................................................................................... 75

6.4. How money matters for young children’s development: Parental investment
and family processes .......................................................................................... 77

6.5.   Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family

process in an ethnically diverse, low income sample ........................................ 79

6.6.  Summary............................................................................................................ 81

7. Conclusions............................................................................................................... 82

7.1.   The key channels for education effects.............................................................. 82

7.2.   Future research................................................................................................... 83

7.3.   Policy relevance ................................................................................................. 84

References......................................................................................................................... 86

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