Executive summary
For each set of factors we present and evaluate the evidence suggesting:
i. an effect of parental education on the factor;
ii. an effect of the factor on children’s development.
In this way we lay out the evidence to ascertain:
iii. which factors are most important;
iv. how such factors channel the effect of education, in part;
v. how the different factors interact.
The important influences on attainment
The most important socio-demographic, family-level, distal influences on children’s
attainments are parental education and income. Occupational status is also important,
although the channels for the effect of occupation are less clear-cut. Family size is
another important factor.
Other much-studied risk factors such as family structure and teen motherhood can
have important indirect effects if occurring in combination with other factors but are
not major influences in themselves on the overall distribution of attainment in the
general population. Similarly, maternal employment is not a key factor provided
quality pre-schools are is available.
Besides pre-schools, other important contexts for influences on attainment are
provided by neighbourhoods and schools. These can mitigate or offset the impact of
family-level factors in a substantial way.
The characteristics of families either have independent effects on attainment or are
the mechanism for the effect of the socio-demographic factors. Parental beliefs,
values, aspirations and attitudes (termed here ‘cognitions’) are very important, as is
parental well-being.
In turn, proximal interactions between parents and children mediate the effects of the
factors mentioned so far. Parenting skills in terms of warmth, discipline and
educational behaviours are all major factors in the formation of school success. These
factors are mechanisms for the effects of the family and can offset or exacerbate the
influences of family characteristics and circumstances.
We find strong theoretical and empirical support for the view that education
influences most of the factors that have been found to affect children’s attainments.
Thus, the role of education is extremely substantial. As well as having a direct
influence on most of the key characteristics and parent-child interactions, parental
education can also moderate the effects of risk factors and ease the effect of them on
interactions between parents and children.
iv