The name is absent

Distal family factors

as carers and assistance from grandparents. From the studies reviewed we find that
maternal employment in the first year after the birth and particularly full-time
working, has a small negative effect on children’s early cognitive outcomes (Gregg &
Washbrook, 2003; Hill et al., 2001; Joshi & Verropoulou, 2000), although this result
is by no means universal (Ermisch & Francesconi, 2000). This effect may be more
than offset by positive effects of working in the second and third years of the child’s
life. In any case the key moderator of any effects is the availability of pre-schools.

5.6.2 The effects of prior parental education on maternal employment

Greater educational participation for women has been matched by the attainment of
better paid jobs, flexible working hours and better working conditions. In Britain,
increasing trends in female education has been accompanied by higher returns to
human capital, which has also driven further participation in education (Davis et al.,
1996).

However, education does not have a straight-forward relationship with maternal
employment, particularly in terms of the elements that may impact on child
development. Education is positively related to mothers’ employment opportunities
and this leads to two countervailing effects. The market power of educated mothers
increases their earning and so increases the opportunity cost of maternity leave. On
the other hand however, with this higher market power comes better maternity rights
and the ability to space work more comfortably around maternity needs. In this sense,
education has both protective elements but also elements of risk. Any overall effect
therefore is likely to be small.

5.6.3 Summary

Employment effects are limited on the whole, if any exist at all. The relationship
between mothers’ education and employment status is too complex and multi-
dimensional for this to be an important channel for education effects. There may be
some important benefits of mother’s education in enabling mothers to manage work-
life balance or obtain jobs with greater flexibility but this may be offset by the extra
time demands of many higher paid jobs. Similarly, mothers’ education may enhance
their ability to access good quality pre-schools in such a way as to offset any possible
negative implications for the child of lost time with the mother. However, this is
really then an effect of education through pre-schools rather than through
employment. More evidence is needed on these important interactions.

We conclude therefore, that education does not have substantial effects on child
development through maternal employment effects.

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