5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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dependence on externally defined goals for behaviours. Experience of failure in such
conditions leads to feelings of low competence and the perception of external control of
outcomes, which in turn, create anxiety in a mastery situation. As a result, motivation to
engage in mastery behaviours reduces. Harter (1975) showed that the effectance motive
operated across different developmental levels but became more focused as children
grew older.

Deci’s (1971, 1982, 1992) cognitive evaluation theory postulates that individuals’ intrinsic
motivation is enhanced by making the perceived locus of causality internal, or by
improving pupils’ perceptions of their own competence. All input relevant to the initiation
or regulation of behaviour is seen to have three aspects. Informational aspects,
supporting autonomy and facilitating competence, promote the individuals’ intrinsic
motivation. Controlling aspects, experienced as pressure to be controlled, promote the
individuals’ extrinsic motivation. Amotivating aspects, promoting or signifying
incompetence, undermine both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Thus, Deci also
emphasised the importance of autonomy, self-determination and perceptions of
competence in learning. Bandura (1997) opposed Deci’s (1975, 1982) controlling-
informative dichotomy, and argued that the properties of incentives which maintain
interest are challenge, which motivates people to cultivate competencies, and a sense of
personal efficacy. In contrast, Deci (1994) suggests that the feeling of competence is not
enough for promoting pupils’ intrinsic motivation; it must be accompanied by perceived
autonomy.

Although Japanese education is sometimes criticised because of its ‘receptive’ view of
the learning process and the pupils’ lack of autonomy (Kuryu, 1994), in fact children’s
intrinsic motivation and autonomy (Azuma, 1986), such as self-help (Tanner, 1977), self-
monitoring of learning performance and self-reflection (Peak, 1991) have been valued in
Japan. Learning by modelling and internal regulation through the learners’ own
understanding have been encouraged as desirable (Kojima, 1986). This is demonstrated
in contemporary instructional styles, especially in Japanese elementary schools. A lack
of extrinsic rewards, and an emphasis on pupils’ understanding and enjoyment in the
learning process, have been reported as examples of practice promoting pupils’ intrinsic
motivation (Lewis, 1992; Tsuchida, 1998). Many Japanese kindergartens have large
classes. Japanese teachers also believe that learning with peers in a large class in the

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