5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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mixed. The results of FIMS (Husen, 1967) showed that Japanese students, overall,
perceived that human beings had effective control of and mastery over their
environment. In contrast, Weisz et al’s (1984) study reported that the Japanese valued
accommodating to existing realities rather than influencing realities, because they
believed that external factors such as fate and luck were influential. Although these
studies are somewhat dated, they suggest that attitudes might have changed between
the 1960s and 1980s.

Deci et al. (1981) found that the pupils’ perceptions of teachers’ attitudes and classroom
climate affected the way the pupils perceived inputs. Teachers who encourage pupils’
autonomy give children information through competence feedback; as a result, pupils’
intrinsic motivation, self-esteem and perception of their competence are promoted.
Teachers who attempt to control pupils’ behaviour, feelings and beliefs give rewards and
communicate in such a way that controlling aspects are emphasised. In this case, pupils’
extrinsic motivation might be promoted, but intrinsic motivation might be undermined.
Deci et al. (1982) found that teachers’ attitudes became more controlling when the
teachers had to deal with administrators’ strict control, excessive parental demands and
pupils’ poor behaviours.

Kage (1990) found that the methods of evaluation affected pupils’ perceived
competence, and their intrinsic motivation at Japanese schools as well. Lessons
adopting criterion-referenced evaluation increased pupils’ intrinsic motivation and
perceived competence. Lessons adopting norm-referenced evaluation decreased their
perceived competence, and as a result, increased pupils’ feelings of tension and anxiety.
Lessons adopting self-evaluation were not as effective as lessons adopting criterion-
referenced evaluation, due to the absence of information about pupils’ competence.

Deci (1992) also suggested that individuals have enduring individual differences in their
ways of understanding and orienting to inputs. Individuals who value autonomy strive
towards self-actualisation. Individuals who feel controlled tend to be conscious about
how others see them. Individuals who experience incompetence are likely to develop
self-derogation, depression, social anxiety and an external locus of control. De Charms
(1968) differentiated between ‘origins’ and ‘pawns’, although this distinction is
continuous, not discrete. Origins have strong feelings of personal causation about

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