5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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Provision of competence feedback rather than controlling feedback, the introduction of
criterion-referenced evaluation rather than norm-referenced evaluation. Preparing
learning activities and materials containing challenge, curiosity and fantasy, are also
assumed to promote individuals’ intrinsic motivation. Japanese culture values children’s
intrinsic motivation, autonomy and self-reliance in learning, although research has
shown that children’s motivation to learn mathematics is largely extrinsic rather than
intrinsic.

Pupils’ motivation

The Ministry of Education in Japan (1999) has proposed that a reduction in curriculum
content and ensuring pupils’ understanding of the content will promote pupils’ motivation
to learn mathematics. This strategy is supported by many theories, which propose that
the optimal level of difficulty of the task is important in promoting learners’ motivation.
Lewin et al.’s (1944) valence theory postulated that individuals initiate their actions when
the positive valence of success multiplied by the potency of success exceeds the
negative valence of failure multiplied by potency of failure. They proposed that
individuals relate the positive valence of success to task difficulty, which is assumed to
be related inversely to the subjective probability of success. Atkinson (1964) developed
Lewin et al.’s (1944) model and proposed that the resultant motivation is determined by
the relative strength of motivation to seek success and motivation to avoid failure. The
strength of motivation to approach success is decided by achievement motives, which
are the individuals’ dispositions hoping for or anticipating success, the probability of
success at the task and the incentive value Ofsuccess. The incentive value Ofsuccess is
an affect, specifically, pride in accomplishment, and has a positive relationships to task
difficulty inferred from the subjective probability of success in an inverse relationship. On
the other hand, the strength of motivation to avoid failure consists of the motives to avoid
failure, which are individuals’ dispositions to fear experiencing failure, the probability of
failure at the task, and the incentive value of failure. An optimal challenge is perceived
as promoting learners’ motivation in Atkinson’s (1964) theory.

Atkinson’s (1964) model includes motives which are altered by individual dispositional
tendencies towards success and failure, so that the resultant motivation is rather
subjective. Atkinson (1964, 1966) found that people with strong achievement motives

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