5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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anxiety in relation to social aspects, such as interactions, than the pupils in the
classroom where solving non-routine problems and discussing strategies in small groups
were of primary importance. No significant difference between these classrooms was
found in the pupils’ task-oriented anxiety.

Wigfield et al. (1989) reported that students’ anxiety in learning was increased by
features of classroom atmosphere, for instance, strict, salient and normative evaluation
systems and overly high standards for evaluations. Similar findings have been reported
in Japanese classrooms. Satake et al. (1995) found that 6^th graders were more likely to
experience classroom performance anxiety than 5^th graders. Higher achievers at both
grades were more likely to experience classroom performance anxiety than lower
achievers. The researchers suggested that teachers’ higher expectancies and demands
of high achievers produced higher classroom performance anxiety in pupils. Isoda’s
(2000) study found that even 8^th graders who enjoyed mathematics had a high heart
beat rate when they tried to explain their thinking in class.

Taken together this research suggests that pupils’ anxiety about learning mathematics,
which may cause their performance to deteriorate, occurs because of situation-specific
factors and the individual’s reactions to them. As these responses are learned, providing
an appropriate supportive learning environment can reduce anxiety. Reducing difficulties
in the curriculum, promoting positive relationships in a class, and avoiding an
excessively strict and normative evaluation system may be effective measures to
prevent pupils from developing mathematics anxiety.

Pupils’ sense Ofprogress

The Ministry of Education in Japan (1999) has defined the acquisition and consolidation
of fundamental knowledge and skills as one of the aims of mathematics education. The
ministry believes that pupils can have a sense of fulfilment through the acquisition and
consolidation of fundamental knowledge and skills, and that this can enhance pupils’
interest in mathematics learning and motivation. However, pupils’ level of knowledge and
skills is not necessarily linked to their perception of their competence and self-efficacy.
For instance, the research results in TIMSS showed that Japanese 8^th graders had

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