5th and 8th grade pupils’ and teachers’ perceptions of the relationships between teaching methods, classroom ethos, and positive affective attitudes towards learning mathematics in Japan

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environments, and in turn, affect children’s task specific self-concepts and task difficulty
beliefs. Children’s task specific-concepts and task difficulty beliefs form their task value
and expectancy for success. Expectancy for success is conceived of as consisting of the
child’s ability perceptions, expectancies, and performance perceptions (Eccles et al.,
1991). Expectancy for success is conceived as combining with task value to determine
the individuals’ motivational behaviour such as task choice, persistence, cognitive
engagement, and actual performance. The positive effect of individuals’ expectancy for
success on their subsequent performance has been found in research on mathematics
learning (Eccles, 1984; Meece et al., 1990).

Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory emphasises the individuals’ capabilities within an
interdependent causal structure involving triadic reciprocal causation with behaviour and
environmental events. This theory defines self-efficacy as the belief in one’s capabilities
to organise and execute courses of action which require achieving given attainments in a
specific situation. Personal commitment to the goal, especially to self-determined goals
combined with challenge, develops a sense of personal efficacy, intrinsic motivation
(Bandura et al. 1981) and the development of skills (Schunk, 1985).

Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1982, 1986, 1989, 1997) defines outcome expectancies
as judgements or beliefs regarding the relation between a person’s behaviour and the
anticipated outcome. The anticipated outcome includes physical effects accompanying
behaviour, the degree of social acceptance and positive or negative self-evaluations.
Self-efficacy and outcome expectancies are orthogonal, although outcome expectancies
are heavily dependent on efficacy judgement (Bandura, 1986). The combination of high
self-efficacy and high outcome expectation is assumed to produce productive
engagement, aspiration and personal satisfaction. The combination of high outcome
expectation and low self-efficacy may lead the individual to self-devalue and become
depressed. The combination of high self-efficacy but low outcome expectation may
make the individual feel discriminated against within the environment. When both the
individual’s self-efficacy and outcome expectations are low, the individual may feel
resignation, apathy and withdrawal (Bandura, 1982).

Fujiu (1992) examined the relationships between pupils’ feelings of self-efficacy and
outcome expectancy, reflected in raising their hands in a class. He found that students

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