School Effectiveness in Developing Countries - A Summary of the Research Evidence

the primary curriculum, which include literacy, numeracy, communications and problem-
solving skills. One of the aims of this report is to review research evidence as to how
schools can best do this, and hence to indicate possible priorities for education aid. It is
clear that developing countries must concentrate their resources on those improvements
that are known to enhance student learning (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991).

Haddad et al (1990, p50) quote several sources to confirm that there are some consistent
general findings from the research.

Variation in school inputs, such as teacher experience, teacher motivation,
the presence of textbooks, homework, and time spent in school during the
year do contribute to varying pupil achievement, even when family
background differences are accounted for.

1.2 Effectiveness and efficiency

Bacchus (1991) identifies three major thrusts in efforts to improve the quality of basic
education:

* raising the academic performance of students in the various subjects
offered in schools with the currently available resources. Such efforts are
often referred to as attempting to improve the 'internal efficiency' of the
schools.

* providing children with education that is most likely to help them
improve the quality of their lives when they become adults.

....This approach is often referred to as attempting to raise the 'external
efficiency' or the 'effectiveness' of schools.

* increasing the rate of school enrollment by providing more school places
and reducing the inequalities which currently exist between the sexes and
between different regions in a country.....

(Bacchus, 1991, pp 5-6)

There is a danger of confusion when defining the terms 'efficiency' and 'effectiveness'
and their descriptors 'internal' and 'external'. According to Lockheed & Hanushek (1988,
p22),

Efficiency refers to a ratio between inputs and outputs. A more efficient
system obtains more output for a given set of resource inputs, or achieves

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