in education projects, research necessary to answer questions about the
internal efficiency of education has been conducted in fewer than half a
dozen instances.
(Lockheed & Hanushek, 1988 pp 27-28)
In view of the paucity of research evidence, there is a strong case for both multilateral
and bilateral agencies to support more research studies related to the effectiveness and
efficiency of alternative educational inputs. Lewin with Ross (1992) recommends
enhancement of the ODA educational research programme support, including the
generation of new knowledge of the effectiveness of intervention strategies.
1.3 Quality in education
The concept of quality in education is not easy to define. Hawes & Stephens (1990)
believe that quality is characterised by three inter-related and inter-dependent strands: (i)
efficiency in meeting its goals; (ii) relevance to human and environmental conditions
and needs; (iii) "something more", that is the exploration of new ideas, the pursuit of
excellence and the encouragement of creativity. If this is accepted, there might be debate
about the relative importance of each strand, about what the goals should be, and about
what is meant by "relevance". In particular one major goal might be equity, and it can be
argued that equity considerations should be part of a broad view of effective schooling.
Urwick & Junaidu (1991, pp l9-20) distinguish two contrasting orientations towards
quality, which they describe as "technical efficiency" and "pedagogic".
The 'technical efficiency' orientation focuses on the provision of basic
school inputs (especially teachers, educational materials and learning
time), their effect on academic achievement and the consequent priorities
for investment. This orientation is characterised by positivist assumptions
and by attempts to measure production functions through large-scale
surveys....The 'pedagogic' orientation towards the quality of education
does not give much emphasis either to physical inputs or to their 'effects',
but rather sees teaching skills, patterns of school organization and
curricular content as the essential components of 'quality.
In practice, there is a danger of over-emphasis on efficiency and on the use of
quantitative indicators. Tipple (1990) points out the tendency to restrict to what can be
measured, and argues that 'the measurable thus assumes unwarranted importance'.
Wilcox (1990, p39) warns that