More generally, Hallak (1990, p220) states that
Textbooks are the instructional device par excellence, and central to
teaching. In the least developed countries, they often constitute 85% of
recurrent expenditure on materials. Classrooms deprived of textbooks
promote little in the way of reading skills, and are obliged to content
themselves with rote learning, recitation, copying from blackboards and
taking lecture notes.
Hallak points out that constraints affecting all categories of costs - design, testing,
production, distribution and use - must be considered at all levels. The cost-effectiveness
of textbooks is considered by Lockheed & Hanushek (1988) - see section 5 of this
report.
2.7 Health and school effectiveness
Lockheed & Verspoor (1991, p74) review research relating to the role of health in
promoting student achievement.
Several studies have explored the relationship between children's
nutritional status and school indicators such as age at enrollment, grade
attainment, absenteeism, achievement test scores, general intelligence, and
performance on selected cognitive tasks, including concentration in the
classroom. Three aspects of nutritional status affect achievement
adversely: protein-energy malnutrition, temporary hunger, and
micronutrient deprivation.
They argue that all three aspects can be easily and efficiently treated in schools.
Supplementary feeding is the most commonly applied intervention for the first two, and
is best applied in the form of modest school snacks or breakfasts. Providing school
lunches, rather than breakfasts or snacks, is of questionable value.
For micronutrient deficiencies, iron, iodine, and vitamin A supplements and deworming
are the prevalent treatments. Lockheed & Verspoor take the view that such supplements
should be given a high priority where deficiencies are present. On deworming,
maximum benefit-cost ratios are achieved when deworming is combined with sanitation,
a clean water supply, and health education.
Finally, Lockheed & Verspoor recommend visual and auditory screening, but state that
cost-benefit ratios are favourable only if the appropriate classroom management