Education Research Gender, Education and Development - A Partially Annotated and Selective Bibliography

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MALIK, Lynda P. (1995) 'Social and cultural determinants of the gender gap in Higher
Education in the Islamic World', Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 30, 3-4,
p. 181-193

This study analysed gender stratification in higher education in Iran, Turkey and
Pakistan and found that cultural factors (particularly religion) were much better
predictors than structural factors. Realignments of state-class relations were found to be
unrelated to the size of the higher education gender gap, which was maximised by the
institutionalisation of Islamic religious codes. Malik chose to focus on three countries
which represent significantly different aspects of the Islamic tradition. Although Islam
emphasises obedience & the conservative view that the proper role of women is in the
family rather than the public sphere, and although this creates difficulties for women
contemplating independent careers in many Islamic societies, "the nature and the
severity of the problems faced by professional women vary from one country to another
and are influenced by many factors", (p184). Malik lists among these factors the
sacred/secular orientation of the government, the literacy of the population, the class
structure of the society and the economic conditions prevalent in the country.

Each of these factors is then examined in the case studies of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey,
which whilst nominally Muslim, differ in fundamental ways. In Turkey the gender gap
in higher education is minimal. Pakistan and Iran both have high levels of gender
stratification in universities. Malik says that these may be explained by the overall low
literacy levels prevailing there as well as by the attempts of religious authorities to limit
women's participation in public life.

State/class structure also varies: Turkey experienced revolution without however the
existing class system being modified. There the traditional elite remained in place,
unlike in Iran. In Pakistan there has been no revolution and the traditional elites have
retained their position.

The sacred/secular orientation of the three countries also differs. Turkey is officially
secular, Iran is a theocratic state and Pakistan is a democracy where fundamentalists,
despite not winning elections, nevertheless influence government to institutionalize
their Islamizing programmes.

Malik's analysis, she feels, points to cultural factors being more important than

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