stressed, in others the proportion of the highest scoring students who gain the top
grades is of most concern. The former approach may lead to the relative neglect of high
achieving students, the latter to too much stress on the most able at the expense of other
students.
In countries which have centralised examining systems where there is considerable
emphasis on examination results improvements in the quality and content of assessment
instruments are attractive for three main reasons. First examination reform may be the
most cost effective way to change patterns of teaching and learning within the
limitations of what can imaginatively be examined. Second, improvements in the
quality, relevance and technical adequacy of selection examinations is likely to be a
priority. If these conditions are not met then those who are selected may not be either
fairly identified or the best suited for the jobs or further courses to which they have
been chosen. Third, research on examination performance at regional, school and
individual level is a critical element in understanding the effects of previous policy
reform on achievement and in making decisions designed to lead to further
improvements in access, equity and the outcomes of schooling.
2.6.4 Alternative delivery strategies
Though much has been written about the prospects for enrolling more students outside
conventional formal school systems there is only patchy evidence on the experience of
this. Non-formal and out-of-school programmes are notoriously difficult to cost and
evaluate. Their forms are very varied, sources of support may be extremely diverse and
of uncertain value, successful completion rates and achievement data are often
unavailable, the programmes themselves are often transient, and target groups are often
not clearly defined. Studies which have tried to compare the cost effectiveness of adult
education have run into irresolvable problems arising from these factors (e.g. Carr-Hill
and Lintott 1985).
There is some evidence on cost-effectiveness relating to systems that have adopted
various forms of distance learning, another widely promoted alternative delivery
system. These most commonly include multimedia open university systems,
correspondence colleges and radio learning. In most cases these have not supplanted the
formal systems that exist alongside them, rather they are complementary, satisfying
demand that cannot be met through existing institutions. Sixteen distance teaching
projects, about half of which are at tertiary level, are reviewed in Perraton (ed) 1986.
Open University programmes seem to have lower costs per graduate than conventional
enrolments, though there are almost as many cases where costs are thought to be
comparable with some existing institutions. Amongst the secondary level programmes
reviewed, several are more expensive per completed graduate than normal schools,
although the majority appear to be cheaper. Completion rates are crucial to these