calculations, yet these are often not easy to discover. It can be concluded that well
designed and effectively implemented distance learning can offer lower unit costs. This
can allow greater access to secondary and post-secondary courses but has little or no
impact on the resources available for primary schools.
Studies of out of school learning indicate that there are a wide range of methods
through which young learners can acquire useful knowledge. There are many ad hoc
arrangements of the informal apprenticeship variety and many countries have
institutionalised various community based education programmes that, to a greater or
lesser extent, shadow the formal system (Lewin and Jones 1985). These are rarely given
high priority by governments coping with severe under funding of the formal system,
since they have less political visibility. Employers may also be wary of supporting out
of school schemes unless they have some guarantee that those trained through them will
use their skills within the enterprise that sponsors them. Where skills are job specific
these kind of schemes seem to be most successful. There is considerable unsatisfied
demand for sources of knowledge outside the formal school system and much potential
in exploring the best vectors through which this can be delivered. As with distance
education, these opportunities are most widespread at the post-primary level.
There are examples of successful alternative delivery systems. The Bangladesh Rural
Advancement Committee (BRAC) has organised a non-formal primary education
programme since 1985. This focuses on children who have been deprived of access to
normal primary schools as a result of poverty and particularly encourages girls to enrol.
In 1989 2,500 schools were functioning and a further 2000 were planned (Lovell and
Fatema 1989:32). By 1992 the number had risen to 6,200 schools (Lovell 1992:50).
These schools offer a three year programme for 8 to 10 year olds and a two year
programme for 11 to 14 year olds and are completely free.
Teachers for these schools are recruited from local communities and given 12 days
initial training followed by monthly training sessions. They are paid a stipend of about
US$ 10 month (1989) which is about one third of that for a government teacher.
Preliminary evaluations (Lovell and Fatema 1989) suggest that the cost per student is
about US$ 15 per year, excluding the contributions that communities make to the
maintenance of the classroom facilities and any opportunity costs arising from school
attendance. The programme is supported by four international donors and BRACs own
resources. The drop out of students appears to be very low (1 to 2%) and a very high
proportion of those following the programme for 8 to 10 year olds (95%) are entering
grade 4 of government secondary schools. Evidence on achievement levels suggests
that these are comparable with those of students in government schools. BRAC has also
been involved in a facilitation assistance programme to upgrade government primary
schools in four districts. Here improvements have occurred but drop-out and
absenteeism remain much higher than in BRAC schools and pedagogical changes have
been much more difficult to introduce (Lovell 1992:57). The BRAC experience seems