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The research locale differs substantially in several ways from the other cases reported in
this study. First, Angonia District is located in the far northwest of the country, bordering
Malawi. Consequently, during the war a larger percentage of the population sought refuge
in camps across the border than in government-secured areas. Proximity to the border created
social and economic opportunities that did not exist in most regions of the country. Second,
in comparison to other areas in the study, this district had been less commercialized by
Portuguese and Mozambicans during the colonial period—that is, there was a higher
percentage of smallholder farmers in relation to larger commercial interests than in the other
sites visited. At the same time, the district was relatively wealthy, and peasant smallholders
reportedly benefited from this wealth.' Third, large areas of Angonia were controlled by
RENAMO beginning early in the war; RENAMO continues to administer many of these
neighborhoods in the postwar period. These characteristics are discussed below as they relate
to our analysis.
We were interested in the area around Ulongue because of the high population
concentration and resulting competition for land. During the last few years of the war, the
city became a safe zone protected by government troops. Many families from Angonia and
surrounding districts moved to this zone, resulting in increased population concentration and
land conflicts between displaced and native families. We also interviewed families in the
territory along the road between Ulongue city and the border post at Dedza (in Malawi),
particularly focusing on Tchabualo and Calomue villages. These lands, bordering an
important transportation route, have substantial commercial value. During the colonial period
private farms were located on either side of the road; there is evidence that nonlocal
commercial interests are returning to the district to resume control of these farms. In the first
round of interviews, conducted in March 1993, some smallholders replied that they would
not occupy these lands because they expected the former private (Portuguese) farmers to
return when the war was truly over. The land near the border, adjacent to the Malawian city
of Dedza, was of interest also because of its relative security during the war. Although
RENAMO troops attacked some persons and kidnapped others in this region, people often
farmed the lands closest to the border during the day while returning to Malawi at night. In
some cases, these courageous farmers were not from the area but were exploiting abandoned
land; in other cases, refugees who previously had land close to the border and were staying
in Malawi continued to farm their own land. Many of the individuals in this latter group were
the first to resume agricultural and other social and economic activities after the peace accord.
We wanted to find out if returning refugees experienced any conflicts.
The second location investigated was Monequera village, Domue. We focused on the area
around one of the four production units of the former state farm, CAIA. The land assets of
this company were temporarily distributed during the war to nonlocal commercial farmers.
Substantial conflicts have developed between local smallholders, state farm workers, and
nonlocal private interests over rights to land.
The third location investigated was the locality of M'Languene in the villages of Bachone
and Chipala. Like Dedza, M'Languene is located on the Mozambican-Malawian border. It
254. See Coehlo (1993).