the many people and activities which remained outside colonial influence for the most part.
There were considerable variations in the autonomy given to Settlers - some were subject to
centralised P/C style rule from Europe, others were able to organise themselves on more
COOP lines. But the activities of the settler community are not our main concern here.
Within the local community, in the fairly small settler-dominated enclaves a P/C culture was
dominant. For the remainder of activities (typically covering the majority of the population)
the macro-environment for group behaviour, as noted above, was a mixture of P/C and
COOP with M playing only a minor role. The way in which these influences translated into
group behaviour can further be illustrated by a brief examination of medical practices.
Colonial medicine
Most accounts indicate a strong similarity of medical colonial systems in different parts of the
world (Manderson, 1999). Initially Colonial medical policy was almost entirely devoted to
protecting the health of the Europeans through urban hospitals. Subsequently efforts were
made to reduce epidemics among the local population which might threaten the health of the
Europeans and also adversely affect labour supply (see e.g. Lyons). Missionary medicine was
more concerned with improving the health of the local population.
By all accounts the organisation of Colonial medicine systematically reflected the P/C nature
of Colonial society. For example, in the French colonial system, medical services were
initially actually an arm of the armed force, and trained by them; military doctors represented
more than 90% of the French medical personnel overseas in 1965 (Patton, 1996). In India,
medical boards were established in the eighteenth century, consisting of the most senior
surgeons, to control appointments and discipline. Appointments were generally made
according to seniority (Jeffery, p61). A British Colonial Medical Service was established in
1901, which laid down a strict hierarchy ranging from the principal colonial surgeon, the
senior colonial surgeon, a colonial surgeon and an assistant colonial surgeon. Administration
was to be carried out by an inspector general. Although the nomenclature varied over the
years, the hierarchical system remained. The role of local personnel was strictly limited, and
often entirely excluded especially in Africa (see, e.g. Patton; Illiffe). Accounts of the training
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