reflect a lack of support in the family, poorer quality of teaching in school or alternatively it
may be that the nature of assessments in mathematics makes improving attainment in this
subject more amenable to additional coaching.
Parents with higher qualifications were more likely to employ tutors to help their children
through the important GCSE examinations that are the gateway to higher education and future
careers. This is consistent with research in former socialist countries such as Slovakia,
Ukraine and Poland (Silova and Bray, 2006, p.96). Families with a history of participation in
higher education are more likely to understand the importance of obtaining good grades in
GCSE examinations, which are a requirement for progression to A level and thence to
university. Parents who have enjoyed the benefits of higher education themselves are perhaps
more likely to hold aspirations for their children to obtain a place at university. As higher
qualifications are closely associated with higher occupational status, these parents are more
likely to be able to afford the costs associated with employment of private tutors. Private
tuition represents a significant economic investment by parents in their children’s education
but is more affordable and flexible than private school as clients pay only for the additional
help they need, a phenomenon that Davies (2004) dubs ‘school choice by default’.
For both students and their parents, an important purpose of tutoring was to do well in tests
and examinations. This was especially evident in year 11 when students were preparing to
take GCSE examinations, but also surfaced in year 6 where there was competition for
secondary school places. A small proportion explicitly mentioned the 11+ and tests of verbal
and non-verbal reasoning, and it is also possible that some of the students receiving help in
literacy and mathematics were preparing for such tests. Others may have needed to obtain
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