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This issue of definition is not just a concern for schools. The two major evaluators of the
subject in schools, Ofsted and the NFER, take slightly differing approaches to the active
citizenship element. Ofsted views the subject as primarily a classroom based entity
whereas the NFER see the vision being realised, in part, at a whole school level (Ofsted,
2006).
We can see from this brief exploration that citizenship education is contested notion, both
in terms of its aims and content, but also in relation to its interpretation and implementation
in schools. The collection of papers in the journal reflects some of these theoretical and
practical debates.
The first article poses some challenging questions. Liam Gearon invites us to consider the
role of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in relation to citizenship education.
Teachers of citizenship are encouraged to engage with the voluntary sector, which is a
source of materials, speakers, websites and which provides opportunities for students to
engage with the world beyond school. A partnership of schools and NGOs is therefore
likely to be a necessary and desirable dimension of the provision of citizenship education.
That said, Gearon points out that there are few safeguards for schools in this partnership.
Are we right to assume that by its very existence an NGO has aims and intentions that are
necessarily identical to those of schools? What guarantee do schools have that NGOs are
benign partners? The question has not previously been posed.
James Wood writes as a senior manager in school committed to citizenship education. He
considers how active citizenship can be promoted and lists a number of forms this can take,
including involvement with NGOs. He gives an account of the some issues involved in
providing a programme of active citizenship in schools, exploring some of the questions
highlighted above, in particular the different definitions of active citizenship and how these
can be translated into school practice.
John Holmes follows the theme of active citizenship and participation by examining
research that concludes that student participation above and beyond its intrinsic value can
also lead to greater students’ motivation and improvements in learning. He draws on
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to underpin his analysis of the evidence.
The fourth article provides the international and comparative dimension to this paper.
Bassel Akar suggests that there are some universal humanistic and democratic principles
that provide the procedural values that enable controversy to be managed constructively in
a school environment. He set out to interrogate teachers in Lebanon, before the war of
summer 2006, to ascertain the extent to which they recognised and worked with such
procedural values. Not surprisingly, although teachers acknowledged humanistic principles,
their practice in the classroom did not always correspond to these beliefs. Whilst promoting
universal values, they were also working within a national understanding of the law and
strong local traditions emphasising duties and obedience rather than rights. In these
conditions the scope for democratic dialogue was relatively limited.
Louisa Neuberger contributes a lively evocation of her classroom experience. She argues
for the benefits of the conviviality associated with the blending and mutual exchange of
Reflecting Education
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