Positive age effects were noted with older students scoring better.
The IEA study demonstrates that sex differences greatly favoured boys in the countries
with the lowest overall scores (a category including many developing countries) in
terms of the performance of both the bottom 20% and the top 20%. Though in Hungary
sex differences were minimal, in Japan, the other high scoring country, boys
outperformed girls consistently at all levels of ability. Typically sex differences in
performance are greatest in physics and least in chemistry.
2.2.4 A note on the effective schools
literature
The most recent collection of studies on effective schools is that by Levin and
Lockheed (1991). This work includes case studies on effective schools and reforms that
have promoted their development. It also reviews data from recent studies using the
multilevel statistical techniques referred to earlier. The overview offered identifies
necessary inputs and facilitating conditions that seem to be related to effective schools.
On the input side four critical aspects are identified. First curriculum relevance, content
and sequencing is seen as essential but often not adequately provided. Second the
availability of instructional materials is stressed as central to effective learning.
Successful schools almost invariably seem to provide sufficient instructional materials
for students and high achievement usually correlates with textbook availability. Third,
the time available for learning is identified as significant. Successful schools appear to
ensure that greater proportions of the time allocated to learning are occupied with
learning activity and increases in learning time generally bring learning gains. Fourth,
they argue there is some evidence that the more learners are actively involved in the
learning process the more likely it is this learning is successful.
Facilitating conditions are delineated as including first a level of community
involvement which may take many forms from additional resources supplied by the
community, to contributions the school makes to the life of the community and direct
parental involvement. Second the professionalism of schools is identified as important.
This is associated with effective leadership, teacher commitment and competence and
adequate accountability. Third, flexible approaches to organisation and teaching and
learning are identified. This includes the ability to adjust curricula and organisational
arrangements to reflect local conditions and adapt teaching methods to suit different
groups of children.
The individual case studies draw attention to what can learnt from experience with
projects in a range of countries that include Thailand, Nepal, India, Colombia, Brazil,