46
someone else. The practice has also led to land conflicts among smallholders, between
smallholders and the state, and between smallholders and private interests.
Most smallholders interviewed stated that they did not rely on the local government-
appointed officials for access to land, though some local government officials were found to
be distributing land to reintegrating smallholders in Sofala, Zambezia, and Manica. In several
cases smallholders receiving land through state authorities said that they had spoken with local
customary authorities or elders to verify that their use of the land was acceptable to the local
community. In the cases where the state had distributed land to smallholders, some recipients
(including reintegrating individuals) admitted that they felt less secure in their rights to the
land. They thought that they might lose the land to another returning family, to the local
community, or to the state; they commented that they would not plant trees on the land given
to them by governmental authorities. In contrast, smallholders in Inhambane openly declared
that they relied on both customary and local government officials, depending on the reputation
of the customary authority.'
2. CUSTOMARY RULES AND REFUGEE REINTEGRATION
Population movement and integration of the more than 6 million displaced persons are
affecting—and will continue to affect—land access for all Mozambicans. In some areas
reintegration is putting a strain on the customary tenure regimes. 100 When a family returns
to an area where they previously farmed, they usually reclaim family lands. If those lands are
occupied, they either apply to the elders to relocate the "squatting" family or request new
lands. Local authorities frequently resolve disputes. However, in some areas, such as Gaza,
Inhambane, and Tete provinces, disputes that are not easily resolved by customary authorities
or government officials result in conflicts and further displacement (see case studies below).
Many peasants have relocated and resumed farming in the past year; some have already
harvested two or more crops. Many individuals have left the refugee camps and accommoda-
tion centers in Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique itself. 101 But many more people have
neither returned to their areas of origin nor taken up permanent residence. Because they are
farming, it is assumed that the formerly displaced are settled and that their land needs have
been satisfied. Both of these assumptions are incorrect.
99. In some areas of the country, such as those investigated in Inhambane and Gaza, a few Mozambicans
exhibited openly negative attitudes toward regulos because of their role as "collaborators" with the Portuguese
during the colonial period. It was not always clear if these regulos were from the same families as the former
customary authorities.
100. See Myers (1993c).
101. UNHCR reported that by October 1993 nearly 400,000 refugees and approximately 2 million internally
displaced individuals had already "returned" (cited in Drumtra 1993, p. 21). We believe that the estimate for
returning displaced families may be highly exaggerated. Having no countrywide data at this time, we base our
hypothesis on field interviews conducted in four provinces. During those interviews a large number of
respondents had not yet "returned to their areas of origin"; many had no desire to return. Clearly, more research
is needed before we can make substantive conclusions about where people have settled. At best, we can say with
certainty only that a large percentage of internally displaced persons have resumed agricultural production.