value in a matrix, which is regulated by simple rules that take into account the “life” values of
the neighbouring cells. With these simple rules, complex behaviours emerge, present in natural
cell colonies, suchas pattern formations and oscillations in structures, translations, generations,
and even predations.
With such examples ithas been seen that complex social phenomena might emerge from
the interaction of simple individuals. But, if the individuals are complex systems themselves,
with emergent properties, the potential of emergence is increased.
2.2. Artificial Societies?
“One day the creator searched for the companions and the sons of his hope,
and it came that he could not find them if he did not start by creating them himself.”
—Nietzsche
Yes. An artificial society (AS) is a synthetic representation of a society. It simulates
social phenomena. Artificial societies are used to understand how societies work by
synthetically creating them12.
Societies were considered to be groups only of humans. But again, since we consider that
animals and artificial creatures are also capable of exhibiting intelligence, we consider a society
as a group of individuals (humans, animals, animats, etc.) exhibiting intelligence and interacting
socially among them.
Sociality presupposes two or more agents in a common shared world. If we do not want
them to be a mere population, they need to interact. If this interaction is made as an agent with
a goal-oriented behaviour13 dealing with another entity as an agent, then we can say that the
interaction is social (Castelfranchi, 1998). This is because an agent could see another agent, for
example, as a moving obstacle, without goals. The behaviour would not be social. A social
behaviour needs not only two or more interacting agents, but these agents need to perceive
each other as their similar.
Some theories about joint or group action (Tuomela, 1993) are built on the basis of
individual action. But we agree with Cristiano Castelfranchi, who also notes the importance of
the individual social action (Castelfranchi, 1997). In a society not only the individual action
should have a social perspective, but also the individual action is influenced by the society.
There can be social action among non cognitive agents, but most social phenomena
involve the interaction of cognitive agents (agents that are able to know). We believe that a
http://132.248.11.4/~carlos
12See Section 1.1.
13A goal oriented behaviour is based on the operational notion of goal and purposive behaviour
(Rosenblueth and Wiener, 1968).
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