ethnicity questions even when asked them. The categories used for the class and
ethnicity questions are not the same as those used in other large data sets - such as the
individualised student records (ISRs) held by the Higher Education Statistics Agency
(HESA) for all students, the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS)
database of applicants, or the annual schools census. This makes it difficult to use the
population figures as the denominator in the final step of this analysis. For example,
the annual schools census does not ask for parental occupation, and the most
commonly-used indicator of disadvantage that it provides instead is eligibility for
free-school meals which is not recorded for applicants to HE. The UCAS figures for
entry qualification to HE exclude the majority of each age cohort who do not apply to
HE. Therefore, it is not possible to compare directly the qualifications attained at
school by different social classes with the rates of participation in HE. We can only
estimate the relevant figures from sample surveys, often with high non-response or
longitudinal dropout, and sometimes with incompatible measures of class or
qualification. Coupled with the many cases in HE not classified by occupation, the
situation for analysis is highly unsatisfactory. Yet, it must be stressed that this is the
best kind of evidence available for studies of widening participation.
Defining participation in HE
For the fourth step in our apparently simple calculation we would next need to know
the prevalence of the social group we are concerned with that had participated in HE.
This step also faces problems in the form of yet more crucial analytical decisions that
could swing the results of the analysis either way. We need to know what proportion
of the population has already participated in HE (even if they did not receive a
qualification). We need to decide whether to include NQF level 4 (HE) courses in FE
colleges, level 3 (pre-HE) courses in HE institutions, postgraduate or level 5 students,
and those involved in professional training such as postgraduate teachers and social
workers, or those involved in short courses such as HE-based continuing professional
development. Do we include those taking degrees by correspondence, or via the
internet? We need to know (as above) whether we distinguish between home country,
UK, Commonwealth, and EU home students. If not, then our prior population figures
become more problematic. If so, then some datasets make it difficult to distinguish