CHAPTER ɪ
CHINESE HISTORY AND CH’ING INSTITUTIONS:
A BRIEF OVERVIEW
China’s cultural evolution from neolithic limes through the Ch’ing
period may be viewed as a process, not always gradual, of expansion, incor-
poration, and progressive integration. Some recent scholars, notably Ho
Ping-ti, have emphasized the pristine origins and independent early devel-
opment of Chinese civilization, but for most of Chinese history, “bar-
barian” influences have contributed significantly to the character and qual-
ity of Chineseculture.'
China’s direct cultural roots may be traced to the Yellow River Valley
some seven thousand years ago. There, sustained by the rich and uniquely
self-fertilizing soil known as loess, a neolithic culture eventually developed
that exhibited many of the traits that have come to be identified with Chi-
nese civilization in its mature form: the cultivation of millet, rice, and other
staple crops; the domestication of animals such as pigs and dogs; the use of
silk and hemp for clothing; distinctive housing, food preparation, and
artistic styles; divination; ancestor worship; and ideographic writing. Over a
period of time, this northern Chinese culture base interacted with other
neolithic cultures scattered throughout various parts of East Asia, receiving
enrichment without losing cultural predominance. The result was the
emergence around 1800 B.C. of China’s first fully historic dynasty, the
Shang (traditional dates: 1766-1122 B.C.).
Many aspects of Shang life show unmistakable neolithic origins, but
the Shang dynasty marks a dramatic new stage in China’s cultural
development. Building mainly on indigenous foundations, the Shang
peoples in north China developed a sophisticated socio-political system
based on ancestor-related theocratic rule over city-states, as well as an
advanced bronze technology, a highly refined writing system, and well-
defined forms of social, economic, and military organization. Shang ar-
chaeological sites have been found in at least ten modern provinces, in-