TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF RESEARCH ON WOMEN FARMERS IN AFRICA: LESSONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS; WITH AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Government policies may affect the household decision-
making structure. For example, in Zimbabwe, the decision
to allow women to sell produce directly to the Grain
Marketing Board, without the involvement of their
husbands, has given them more control over their produce
(Muchena 1994 ). And, as previously suggested, policies
affecting the land tenure patterns of women may affect the
outcomes of household decisions.

The introduction of new technology may change the
balance of power within a household. For example, in
Gambia, rice was a woman’s individual crop. The
introduction of centralized pump irrigation, which was
designed to benefit women, resulted in rice becoming a
community crop under the authority of the male
compound head (von Braun and Webb 1989). The
introduction of a mechanical maize sheller into a Nigerian
village shifted the control of the shelling process from men
to women (Ladipo 1991). The men responded negatively,
arguing about the price and demanding free shelling;
eventually, some of them seized the machine. Thus,
shifting the balance of power can have unforeseen
repercussions that may affect both productivity and
welfare.

Changes in technology that increase the use of inputs
that require cash or credit may affect household decision-
making. Greater dependence on cash may increase a
women’s dependence on remittances from her husband
(Hirschmann and Vaughan 1984). In addition, women
may not be able to avail themselves of new technologies
that require cash from men, if the men do not realize a
direct benefit (Saito 1994).

Finally, to understand intrahousehold dynamics, it is
important to have a working definition of the
“household.” The application of this term is problematic
in many parts of Africa. Typically, households are defined
as a group of people living under one roof, eating out of
the same pot, and making some joint decisions. However,
in Africa, production and consumption units may not be
the same. In areas where child fostering is common,
household composition may also depend on whether
children are fostered out or in.

For studies of agricultural productivity, we would want
to know the status of the farmers within the household—
how are they related to the household head? In addition,
we would want to know something about the size and
structure of the household. Is it extended vertically, with
several generations engaged in agricultural production? Is it
extended horizontally, with people such as the head’s
siblings present? What is the ratio of children to adults?
How many people in the household cannot contribute to
household production? Are some household members
away for part of the year? Do they send remittances and are
they involved in household decision-making? Is the
household polygamous? The requisite information about
household size and structure will depend on the questions
being addressed, however, the emphasis on collecting data
on individual farmers should not exclude the collection of
basic information about the household structure.

Thus, to understand decisions about agricultural
production, we need to know which individuals are
making the decisions and what specific constraints they
face. Although the identity of the decision maker and the
associated constraints may change with new economic
circumstances, past research on intrahousehold dynamics,
especially that from Africa, assures us that it is important
to be attentive to these issues.

Conclusions

The story that emerges from the literature on women and
agricultural production in Africa is enormously complex.
The African farm household is a diversified and multi-
faceted economic entity. It pursues numerous agricultural
and nonagricultural enterprises and operates within
elaborate networks of credit, insurance, and contracts. The
households include people with competing goals and
objectives, cooperating fully on some issues and less so on
others.

It is clear from the literature that “gender matters.” The
literature documents many changes that have occurred in
gender roles and responsibilities as a result of new
economic opportunities, which may result from changes in
agricultural technology or urbanization and economic
growth. The gender patterns change, and in some cases,

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