TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF RESEARCH ON WOMEN FARMERS IN AFRICA: LESSONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS; WITH AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

are compared. Work loads in both villages are heavier for
women than men and work loads in the modern village are
significantly higher than the traditional village. The Côte
d’Ivoire survey again notes that females have heavier work
loads than males, even when compared within age groups.
They find that women provided 54% of the calories
brought into the kitchen in addition to performing their
demanding domestic tasks. Agricultural activities constitute
a major share of energy expenditure. In addition, time
devoted to agricultural work adds to women’s tasks instead
of replacing them and is the major differentiating factor
among the various levels of physical activity.

Bindlish, V., and R.E. Evenson. 1997. The impact of T&V
extension in Africa: The experience of Kenya and
Burkina Faso. World Bank Research Observer 12(2):
183-201.

Evidence from Kenya and Burkina Faso suggests that T&V
extension systems support agricultural growth and produce
high returns on investments. Higher yields are achieved in
areas served by extension, and within those areas, by farmers
who participate directly in extension activities. Thus,
extension helps to bring the potential gains from existing
technologies to farmers. However, additional research will
be needed to develop relevant technologies. The T&V
system appears to be reaching both male- and female-
headed households, although there were few women farmers
in the Burkina Faso sample.

Birkhaeuser, D., and R.E. Evenson. 1991. The economic
impact of agricultural extension: A review. Economic
Development and Cultural Change 39(3): 607-50.

This review article examines the empirical studies of the
impact of extension and discusses the methodological
problems that they share. In particular, most of the existing
studies ignore the possibility of endogeneity in observed
extension/farmer interactions and the prevalence of
information flows among farmers. The majority of studies
reviewed indicate a significant positive impact of extension,
but the methodological shortcomings of the studies leave
many questions yet unanswered. Specific issues regarding
which farmers benefit from extension, including differences
by gender, are not addressed in the article.

Blackie, M.J. 1990. Maize, food self-sufficiency and policy
in East and Southern Africa. Food Policy. Pp. 383-94.

During the past century, maize has become a staple food in
eastern and southern Africa. Maize is an important cash
crop and provides opportunities for agricultural labor
within the region. However, annual average yields have
remained low, especially considering the rapid rate of
population growth. This paper examines government
policies that have influenced maize producers in eastern and
southern Africa. The objectives of economic policies, such
as price policy and government intervention in maize
marketing, have included improving national maize self-
sufficiency and stabilizing maize prices for consumers.
Despite these policies, many countries still face erratic maize
supplies. The effects of these policies are examined by
contrasting the experiences of different countries within the
region. Available maize technology is not being fully
utilized, in part because maize research has been biased
towards large-scale producers and high-cost production
methods. Many smallholder households face food insecurity
and cannot meet their annual household food requirements.
It is noted that female-headed households often face labor
shortages and must compensate for absent males by hiring
labor or purchasing yield-increasing inputs. No account is
given, however, of how the government policies discussed
have specifically affected women.

Bleiberg, F.M., T.A. Brun, S. Goihman, and E. Gouba.
1979. Duration of activities and energy expenditure of
female farmers in dry and rainy seasons in Upper Volta.
The Nutrition Society 43(71): 71-82.

The energy intake and expenditures of fifteen female
farmers (aged 18-47 years) from Burkina Faso were
estimated and assessed during the dry and rainy seasons.
Energy expenditures for various activities were measured by
indirect calorimetry. During the dry season, daily energy
output of female farmers is classified as between moderately
and very active and in the rainy season as exceptionally
active. The very high level of energy expenditure during the
rainy season, attributable to the compulsion to spend long
hours at heavy work, may lead to energy deficiencies and
explain rainy season weight loss.

Bleiberg, F., T.A. Brun, S. Goihman, and D. Lippmann.
1980. Food intake and energy expenditure of male and
female farmers from Upper-Volta. British Journal of
Nutrition 43(71): 71-82.

The food intake and energy expenditure of 11 male and 14
female adult farmers were measured for 6 days after the
harvest in December and January. This was a time of relative
food abundance and included two market days. Body-
weight as a percentage of the expected weight-for-height was
91% for women and 86% for men. Carbohydrates
accounted for 80% of total energy intake with fat and
protein supplying 13% and 12%, respectively. In the male
group, the mean energy intake corresponded closely with
the average energy output. In the female group, however,
the mean energy expenditure exceeded the mean energy
intake. The magnitude of the energy deficit found for
female farmers suggests either incomplete measurements of
food consumption or an overestimation of energy
expenditure. Comparisons to women of similar energy
intake in other developing countries are conflicting and
point to the need for further investigation. Although
sorghum and millet are the staple crops, this study points to
the need to compare food intake and energy expenditure in
order to gain greater insights into the nutritional needs of
African farmers.

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