explicit in curricular and associated documents. In contrast, the term “critical thinking” is
promoted wholeheartedly in English curricular mandates, often accompanied by
clarifications such as ‘exploring, developing, evaluating and making choices’
(Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 2007). Two questions thus arise which are
addressed in this article: firstly, how are “critical thinking” and “critical pedagogy”
distinct? And secondly, to what extent might spaces exist for citizenship educators to
promote the latter within the bounds of the formal curricula for citizenship education?

In its investigation of the first question, this paper explores the nature of, and
distinctions between, the two conceptions of critical citizenship described above, namely
critical pedagogy and critical thinking. Having distinguished those elements which are
particular to critical thinking and critical pedagogy, through an analysis of the burgeoning
literature from both fields, the paper focuses on the literature which has promoted specific
elements of critical pedagogy and develops a conceptual framework which relates these to
characteristic curricular language regarding the desired knowledge, skills, values and
dispositions of students. The application of this framework allows forms of critical
citizenship to be distinguished and may reveal ‘spaces’ for critical pedagogy within the
various levels and manifestations of school curricula, including policy documents,
programmes of study and the practical experiences of pupils. The body of the paper
divides into three sections: a review of the literature contributing to the conceptualisation
of critical citizenship; development of the framework itself; and a brief investigation of the
framework’s practical implications and potential limitations.

Critical Pedagogy, Critical Thinking and Critical Citizenship

The word “critical” in its educational context can be found in a diverse range of literature
where it is given a range of meanings. This section briefly compares and contrasts the

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